You wake up early the next morning — even though you didn’t take a long nap, you’re still feeling the jet lag. When you (text-style:"sway")[make your way down] the squeaking old staircase to the kitchen, you find a plate of fresh melon slices on the kitchen table and a large moka pot of coffee on the stove waiting for you.
(click: "pot of coffee")+(t8n:'dissolve')[<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/cbac908ac7343d104694abad89b24b2a/0406667022bb311e-2a/s1280x1920/076c2193f5e01d701a565619527bd493343e481d.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
As you groggily pour yourself a steaming cup of espresso from the moka pot, Lisa comes in the front door carrying Spike, who she sets down in front of his food dish.
“Good — you found the coffee,” she says. ]
(click: "front door")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“Yes, thanks,” you say, scratching what look like two new mosquito bites — apparently from last night — on your arm.
“The mosquitoes are bad this time of year,” Lisa says. “That’s because so much of Rome was built on a marsh. I probably should have bought a house on one of the hills, but it’s fun living where the action is.”
She stuffs a melon slice into her mouth and says, in a slightly muffled voice, “I was emailing with Valeria last night. She told me about the statue you’re researching, and I thought you might find a little tour of the Roman Forum helpful. In a way, it’s the true heart of the city. I have a connection there and should be able to get us in before it opens to the public.” ]
(click: "get us in")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“Sounds great,” you say. “Nice of you to take me.”
She waves her hand. “I’ve been meaning to do a little research of my own there for a while now.” She takes another bite of melon. “I emailed you a reading on it that’ll help make our trip more meaningful. Don’t get too caught up in trying to remember the names of the specific buildings or dates — just read to get a feel for the kinds of things the space was used for and the types of buildings that were in it.”
As she’s heading up the stairs, she stops and adds, “Oh, and the hot water’s out again. I’ll try to fix it later.”]
(click: "space was used")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“No problem,” you say, groaning inwardly. You check your phone, and sure enough, there’s an email from Lisa with a PDF of selections from a book by an Italian archaeologist named Filippo Coarelli, titled //Rome and Environs: An Archaeological Guide//. ]
(click: "selections from a book")+(t8n:'dissolve')[//Please read the PDF before continuing with the story. To download the PDF, click on the “pop-out” button in the upper right corner of the document. That will open a new window, and from there you can read and/or download the PDF.//
<iframe src="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1b964NGYHsuR_4-xZ411yLpSd70S41cfU/preview" style="width:100%;max-width:896px;height:672px"></iframe>
[[After you finish reading, you go to get ready for the day]]]
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(print: '<progress value="' + (text: $progress) + '" max="18"></progress>')]Lisa (text-style:"shudder")[winces]. “You must have been tired when you were reading. While it’s true that baths and circuses were extremely popular places for entertainment, the Roman Forum was the political and religious center of the city, as well as a marketplace. Think of it as a plaza, in our modern terminology — it’s where we’d have a city hall, other important public buildings, places where people gather... all in the center of town. From its earliest days, and by that I mean the 7th century BCE, the Roman Forum had a political gathering space, called the Comitium, and religious buildings like the Temple to Saturn or the Temple of Castor and Pollux.
I’ll show you some of these when we get there, as well as some other things. Over time, different rulers added new buildings to the area. One type of building that was popular in the Forum had a rectangular design and was called a ‘basilica.’”
(click: "basilica")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“Wait,” you say. “I thought that was a kind of church, like St. Peter’s Basilica in the Vatican.”
“Well yes,” Lisa responds. “Later on, in the 4th century CE, some churches did take on the name of basilica, because they borrowed the long rectangular form of the older building. But actually, for the Romans of the more ancient period we’re looking at, the basilica was //not// a religious building — it was a law court.”
“Right,” you say. “I remember from the Coarelli reading that...
[[...Pompey Magnus built a basilica in the Roman Forum.”|Pompey basilica]]
[[...Julius Caesar built a basilica in the Roman Forum.”|Caesar basilica]] ]
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(float-box: "x====", "Y====")+(css: "font-size: 60%;")[Progress
(print: '<progress value="' + (text: $progress) + '" max="18"></progress>')]“Right you are,” Lisa says with a smile. “The Roman Forum was the political and religious center of the city, as well as a marketplace. Think of it as a plaza, in our modern terminology — it’s where we’d have a city hall, other important public buildings, places where people gather... all in the center of town. From its earliest days, and by that I mean the 7th century BCE, the Roman Forum had a political gathering space, called the Comitium, and religious buildings like the Temple to Saturn or the Temple of Castor and Pollux. I’ll show you some of these when we get there, as well as some other things. Over time, different rulers added new buildings to the area. One type of building that was popular in the Forum had a rectangular design and was called a ‘basilica.’”
(click: "basilica")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“Wait,” you say. “I thought that was a kind of church, like St. Peter’s Basilica in the Vatican.”
“Well yes,” Lisa responds. “Later on, in the 4th century CE, some churches did take on the name of basilica, because they borrowed the long rectangular form of the older building. But actually, for the Romans of the more ancient period we’re looking at, the basilica was //not// a religious building — it was a law court.”
“Right,” you say. “I remember from the Coarelli reading that...
[[...Pompey Magnus built a basilica in the Roman Forum.”|Pompey basilica]]
[[...Julius Caesar built a basilica in the Roman Forum.”|Caesar basilica]] ]
(set: $progress to 3)
(float-box: "x====", "Y====")+(css: "font-size: 60%;")[Progress
(print: '<progress value="' + (text: $progress) + '" max="18"></progress>')]“Nope,” Lisa says. “Pompey didn’t build a basilica. But Caesar did: he built the Basilica Julia in the Roman Forum — which is named after him, of course. It was dedicated, or formally opened for use, in 46 BCE. He didn’t get to enjoy it for very long, though. He died soon afterward.”
“On the Ides of March,” you say.
Lisa smiles. “You remember that from Shakespeare’s //Julius Caesar//?”
You nod. “We read that in high school.”
“But do you remember what ‘the Ides of March’ means?”
“Ah,” you stammer, “I think it’s...
[[March 14th."]]
[[March 15th."]]
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(float-box: "x====", "Y====")+(css: "font-size: 60%;")[Progress
(print: '<progress value="' + (text: $progress) + '" max="18"></progress>')]“Yes,” Lisa says. “Caesar built the Basilica Julia — which is named after him, of course. It was dedicated, or formally opened for use, in 46 BCE. He didn’t get to enjoy it for very long, though. He died soon afterward.”
“On the Ides of March,” you say.
Lisa smiles. “You remember that from Shakespeare’s //Julius Caesar//?”
You nod. “We read that in high school.”
“But do you remember what ‘the Ides of March’ means?”
“Ah,” you stammer, “I think it’s...
[[March 14th."]]
[[March 15th."]]
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(print: '<progress value="' + (text: $progress) + '" max="18"></progress>')]“I think it’s March 14th.”
“Close!” Lisa says. “In our modern calendar, it would be March 15th. But in the Roman calendar, it would be roughly in the middle of the month. They had a different counting system for their calendar. The first of the month was called ‘kalends,’ and ‘ides’ was either the fourteenth or the fifteenth. Do you remember the year he died?”
[["44 BCE."]]
[["45 BCE."]]
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(float-box: "x====", "Y====")+(css: "font-size: 60%;")[Progress
(print: '<progress value="' + (text: $progress) + '" max="18"></progress>')]“I think it’s March 15th.”
“Yes,” Lisa says. “Well, a qualified yes, anyway. In our modern calendar, it would be March 15th. But in the Roman calendar, it would be roughly in the middle of the month. They had a different counting system for their calendar. The first of the month was called ‘kalends,’ and ‘ides’ was either the fourteenth or the fifteenth. Do you remember the year he died?”
[["44 BCE."]]
[["45 BCE."]]
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(float-box: "x====", "Y====")+(css: "font-size: 60%;")[Progress
(print: '<progress value="' + (text: $progress) + '" max="18"></progress>')]“You nailed it!” Lisa says. “Caesar died in 44 BCE, only four years after Pompey died and there was no one left, really, to challenge Caesar’s power. But Caesar did a lot in the short time he was in charge.”
“Like what?” you ask.
“He enacted a number of reforms that helped the people and angered the elites. He also hoarded as much power as he could... and you might say he was the beginning of the end of the Republic.”
“Was he the first emperor, then?”
“The first true emperor was Julius Caesar’s adopted son and heir, Augustus,” Lisa says. “But Augustus, in a way, was just adding to the foundation that Caesar made. Literally.”
“What do you mean?”
“Well,” Lisa says, “Caesar totally changed the Roman Forum. He built a lot of things in that area, including the Basilica Julia. Here’s a plan of that.”
She shows you an image on her phone.
(click: "image on her phone")+(t8n:'dissolve')[<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/852d48dbc9aa0e07441dc22b1a14ecdc/7f95612e5f44151a-55/s1280x1920/2a9f75adb112daa526c184570a32c08bd8f46481.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
“This plan shows us Caesar’s Basilica,” Lisa says. “Later builders, during the Christian period, borrowed the longitudinal, axial design for their churches, and they took the name ‘basilica’ too.”
“Okay,” you ask, “is ‘axial’ like the word ‘axis’? What does that mean, exactly?”
“Yes,” Lisa answers. “We use the term ‘axial,’ along with ‘longitudinal,’ to describe buildings that we see in architectural plans. In this case, I mean that the building is really long, oriented around a long vertical central axis. By contrast, we wouldn’t call a circular building longitudinal or axial. In the plan I just showed you, if you were standing at one of the shorter ends, you could see straight along the central axis all the way to the other side. I’ll show you the building when we’re in the Roman Forum so you can see for yourself.”
“What are these dots here?” you ask, pointing at the plan. “Are they columns?”
“That’s right,” Lisa says. “The plan just shows what was there at the ground level, but those dots, or columns, would have held up a second story. There were three stories, actually. Let me show you...”
She finds images of reconstructions of the Basilica Julia on her phone to show you. ]
(click: "images of reconstructions")+(t8n:'dissolve')[<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/e922819b58fc3af0142bf6cca2c4356b/fdf0f515e0777dda-48/s1280x1920/ae27c25caa9b2313124443cdb5f732c573031796.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/4544f28035a3c3816d10efd157aa5673/9a758536e812036a-e4/s500x750/04f3af490d1aeccf7f910cc5ae689f83b65ee2fd.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
After showing you the reconstructions, Lisa goes back to the plan, and you look at it again. You ask, “What about those lines there, in the upper right and left corners — what are those?”
“Those are the stairs to get into the building. People wouldn’t just climb them... they would hang out on these stairs. They carved game boards into the steps, showing that people sat around playing games there. Again, we think of it as a very public space — a lot was going on in the Roman Forum.”
Lisa scrolls through her phone and shows you images of the game boards, including one, she says, that has graffiti over it. ]
(click: "graffiti over it")+(t8n:'dissolve')[<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/4e4f1e00f23c0326ae7dc3944e139076/8d49581be2dfadfd-9f/s1280x1920/0c3ad1bd532b22729a38af7f5d9847bfe31c33a4.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/06b9ab3f492838a82a70cb874f150e7f/5cdb0cc0ffd905dd-ad/s1280x1920/5b0d2c13f030eb0fee42fb7c65ba911b0ecce2ef.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/b336cd1f7c8a8ec3b39505bcdc4c8797/a2097937575b02d5-ae/s640x960/8851754c65c8339a0e940640070bba11e9f42620.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
“Of course,” Lisa continues, “Caesar and other powerful Romans also played politics — which some consider to be the greatest game of all — in the Forum. They used architecture as the playing pieces and the Roman Forum as their game board, along with other places in the city. They would use buildings as propaganda, or as advertisements about what they could offer to the people.”
“Like Pompey did with his theater?”
“Yes,” says Lisa, “and Julius Caesar did a similar thing with his buildings throughout the Roman Forum. Do you remember from the Coarelli reading what changes Caesar made, besides building the Basilica Julia?”
[[“Yes,” you say. “He built the Colosseum next to the Roman Forum and expanded the Circus Maximus. This focus on entertainment helped him get the support of the people for his political aims.”|colosseum circus]]
[["Yes," you say. "He built a whole new forum and senate house."|forum senate house"]]]
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(print: '<progress value="' + (text: $progress) + '" max="18"></progress>')]
“Close!” Lisa says. “Caesar died in 44 BCE, only four years after Pompey died and there was no one left, really, to challenge Caesar’s power. But Caesar did a lot in the short time he was in charge.”
“Like what?” you ask.
“He enacted a number of reforms that helped the people and angered the elites. He also hoarded as much power as he could... and you might say he was the beginning of the end of the Republic.”
“Was he the first emperor, then?”
“The first true emperor was Julius Caesar’s adopted son and heir, Augustus,” Lisa says. “But Augustus, in a way, was just adding to the foundation that Caesar made. Literally.”
“What do you mean?”
“Well,” Lisa says, “Caesar totally changed the Roman Forum. He built a lot of things in that area, including the Basilica Julia. Here’s a plan of that.”
She shows you an image on her phone.
(click: "image on her phone")+(t8n:'dissolve')[<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/852d48dbc9aa0e07441dc22b1a14ecdc/7f95612e5f44151a-55/s1280x1920/2a9f75adb112daa526c184570a32c08bd8f46481.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
“This plan shows us Caesar’s Basilica,” Lisa says. “Later builders, during the Christian period, borrowed the longitudinal, axial design for their churches, and they took the name ‘basilica’ too.”
“Okay,” you ask, “is ‘axial’ like the word ‘axis’? What does that mean, exactly?”
“Yes,” Lisa answers. “We use the term ‘axial,’ along with ‘longitudinal,’ to describe buildings that we see in architectural plans. In this case, I mean that the building is really long, oriented around a long vertical central axis. By contrast, we wouldn’t call a circular building longitudinal or axial. In the plan I just showed you, if you were standing at one of the shorter ends, you could see straight along the central axis all the way to the other side. I’ll show you the building when we’re in the Roman Forum so you can see for yourself.”
“What are these dots here?” you ask, pointing at the plan. “Are they columns?”
“That’s right,” Lisa says. “The plan just shows what was there at the ground level, but those dots, or columns, would have held up a second story. There were three stories, actually. Let me show you...”
She finds images of reconstructions of the Basilica Julia on her phone to show you. ]
(click: "images of reconstructions")+(t8n:'dissolve')[<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/e922819b58fc3af0142bf6cca2c4356b/fdf0f515e0777dda-48/s1280x1920/ae27c25caa9b2313124443cdb5f732c573031796.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/4544f28035a3c3816d10efd157aa5673/9a758536e812036a-e4/s500x750/04f3af490d1aeccf7f910cc5ae689f83b65ee2fd.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
After showing you the reconstructions, Lisa goes back to the plan, and you look at it again. You ask, “What about those lines there, in the upper right and left corners — what are those?”
“Those are the stairs to get into the building. People wouldn’t just climb them... they would hang out on these stairs. They carved game boards into the steps, showing that people sat around playing games there. Again, we think of it as a very public space — a lot was going on in the Roman Forum.”
Lisa scrolls through her phone and shows you images of the game boards, including one, she says, that has graffiti over it. ]
(click: "graffiti over it")+(t8n:'dissolve')[<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/4e4f1e00f23c0326ae7dc3944e139076/8d49581be2dfadfd-9f/s1280x1920/0c3ad1bd532b22729a38af7f5d9847bfe31c33a4.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/06b9ab3f492838a82a70cb874f150e7f/5cdb0cc0ffd905dd-ad/s1280x1920/5b0d2c13f030eb0fee42fb7c65ba911b0ecce2ef.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/b336cd1f7c8a8ec3b39505bcdc4c8797/a2097937575b02d5-ae/s640x960/8851754c65c8339a0e940640070bba11e9f42620.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
“Of course,” Lisa continues, “Caesar and other powerful Romans also played politics — which some consider to be the greatest game of all — in the Forum. They used architecture as the playing pieces and the Roman Forum as their game board, along with other places in the city. They would use buildings as propaganda, or as advertisements about what they could offer to the people.”
“Like Pompey did with his theater?”
“Yes,” says Lisa, “and Julius Caesar did a similar thing with his buildings throughout the Roman Forum. Do you remember from the Coarelli reading what changes Caesar made, besides building the Basilica Julia?”
[[“Yes,” you say. “He built the Colosseum next to the Roman Forum, and expanded the Circus Maximus. This focus on entertainment helped him get the support of the people for his political aims.”|colosseum circus]]
[["Yes," you say. "He built a whole new forum and senate house."|forum senate house"]]]
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(print: '<progress value="' + (text: $progress) + '" max="18"></progress>')]
“Actually,” Lisa says, “the Colosseum was completed in 80 CE, over a century after Julius Caesar died. But it’s true that Caesar expanded the Circus Maximus, which was primarily used for chariot races, and that he paid for many games, held in several different places, to entertain the people of Rome — all of which helped him gain popular support.” Lisa shows you her phone. “But if you want to know what Caesar built in and around the Roman Forum, and more importantly, //why//, you should re-read this paragraph from Coarelli. It’ll help you understand.”
(click: "Coarelli")+(t8n:'dissolve')[You read:
//At the end of the Republic, when Rome was firmly established as the capital of an empire extending from Gaul (modern-day France) to Syria, the old Republican Forum was no longer adequate to the functions of central administration and public relations. The first to address these needs by initiating the construction of a new monumental complex (as early as 54 BC) was Julius Caesar, who presented the project initially as a simple enlargement of the old Forum. Caesar’s subsequent alterations of the Republican Forum were more radical, entailing the virtual elimination of the Comitium (meeting place of the earliest organized voting of the Republic), replaced in part by the new Forum Iulium (Forum of Caesar), and the reconstruction of the Curia Hostilia, the ancient seat of the Roman Senate, in a different location, which essentially transformed the new senate house, the Curia Iulia, named after Julius Caesar, into an annex of Caesar’s Forum. Construction of the Basilica Julia on a scale much larger than its predecessor, the Basilica Sempronia, and renovation of the Basilica Fulvia-Aemilia completed the total reconfiguration of the Forum’s long sides.
Augustus, though more cautious and hesitant than his great-uncle Julius, nonetheless had to take into account the revolutionary development that Julius had begun in his own building program...//
“You see!” Lisa says. “Caesar’s new buildings, all named after himself, made it clear that he was the real center, the real power of Rome. Here,” she says, typing on her phone, “look at this picture.” ]
(click: "this picture")+(t8n:'dissolve')[You look at her phone:
<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/2506126e039d447d43300393d339c3e9/4b272a2008f2ab97-37/s1280x1920/7ab0b7dd9eaa2476b05b7aa81c22fdbb3560082b.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
“The Basilica Julia,” Lisa says, “is in the bottom left, marked number 23. And just above that, you can see the Curia, where the Senate met, which Julius Caesar also built — its full name was the Curia Julia. And then above that is the Forum of Caesar. He made himself his //own// forum. He was the first ruler to do this. You saw Trajan’s Forum on your walk to get to my house... that was built about 150 years after Caesar died. Many later rulers followed the model of Caesar and built their own forum, but he was the first. He designed it so that you would have to enter his own forum from the Roman Forum itself, suggesting that they were closely connected. In his forum, he had a temple to Venus Genetrix, or Venus the Mother, because he wanted to advertise that he was descended from Venus.”
“Okay,” you say, looking at the plan, “but what about above Caesar’s Forum? Augustus made a forum, too, that was connected to Julius Caesar’s? Who was Augustus again?”
“Augustus was Caesar’s great-nephew, and later, his adopted son and heir. You remember him from the show you watched last night?” She types into her phone. “Let me see if I can find a picture of him in the show...” ]
(click: "picture of him")+(t8n:'dissolve')[You look over at her phone.
<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/1b30f5ff911cf6964adbc58824914e3f/1ed5363f52326df8-8b/s400x600/b7409e4f87b989e14f58946b8bcf8092302b010b.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
“I remember him,” you say. “He was kidnapped while he was going to visit Julius Caesar, and then he was rescued by the two soldiers. But they didn’t call him Augustus, did they?”
“No,” says Lisa, “he was called Octavian when he was younger. After Julius Caesar dies, the power in Rome eventually gets split between Octavian and one of Caesar’s generals, Mark Antony. Mark Antony falls in love with Cleopatra, and they end up fighting a civil war against Octavian and his friend and general Agrippa. Octavian wins, and Mark Antony and Cleopatra escape to Egypt, where they commit suicide. Horrible, but romantic, I suppose, in a //Romeo and Juliet// kind of way. You should watch the whole //Rome// series if you want to learn more about it. But anyway, Octavian eventually consolidates power and becomes the first true emperor. He takes a number of new titles, including Augustus, which comes from the Latin word //augur// meaning to grow or increase. He initially thought about taking the name Romulus but thought that was too much, even for him, so he decided on Augustus, which basically means ‘the Great One.’”
Lisa smirks, and then continues. “After he takes the name Augustus, what does he do then? He builds, just like his great-uncle! Here,” she says, typing into her phone. “Look again at the plan of the Roman Forum and its environs."]
(click: "Roman Forum and its environs")+(t8n:'dissolve')["Just above the Forum of Caesar, you’ll see the forum that Augustus built perpendicular to it. And some of the emperors after him, most notably Trajan, continued with that tradition by building their own fora — that’s the plural of forum.”
<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/2506126e039d447d43300393d339c3e9/4b272a2008f2ab97-37/s1280x1920/7ab0b7dd9eaa2476b05b7aa81c22fdbb3560082b.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
“So Augustus became the first emperor — not king, though, right?” you ask. “I’m confused because I know there were kings too, weren’t there?” ]
(click: "kings too")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“Yes, there were kings in Rome’s earliest days. The first was Romulus, who, according to legend, was nursed by a she-wolf and founded Rome on the Palatine Hill in 753 BCE. After that, there were other kings... the last one was Tarquin the Proud, who was kicked out in 509 BCE. That was the beginning of the Republic, when Roman citizens could vote for almost all of their officials. The Republic lasted almost 500 years, all the way up until Augustus became the first emperor in 27 BCE. He did away with most of the elections for high offices. The Roman Senate continued to exist, and there was still voting by citizens in smaller local elections, but the real power was in the hands of the emperors from the time of Augustus forward.”
“I’m starting to see how things fit together,” you say, “at least a little. Pompey, then Caesar, and then Augustus took power, but they built these incredible things that the people of Rome were able to use in different ways, and that also furthered specific political aims. Is that right, at least in a basic sense?”
“Yes,” says Lisa. “They used architecture, but they used art, too. Look at this statue of Augustus. It’s quite famous — it’s called the Augustus of Primaporta. This statue is beautiful, but it’s also pure propaganda.”
Lisa shows you an image on her phone: ]
(click: "image on her phone")+(t8n:'dissolve')[<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/c0dd5cc613fc1c850849d8f9771c8e70/f7a91558fc4a104a-2e/s1280x1920/d7e058c1db87fc1b0f0dbf056bbb92d2481140ce.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
“Augustus,” Lisa says, “is presented as a military commander with his breastplate but also as a leader of the people. See how he’s holding out his arm, as if to address a crowd? Look closely at his breastplate.” Lisa scrolls down to another image: ]
(click: "another image")+(t8n:'dissolve')[<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/ed5f0667adc8d6135a2a4c90b466d624/863d4ff639080256-2f/s1280x1920/12a83eca544923e63bac6448c1242b4161271fcd.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
“The scene on Augustus’s breastplate,” Lisa explains, “tells of his military victories. The figure on the right is a captured Parthian — Parthia was located basically in modern-day Iran — who was handing over the military standards, a symbol of victory, to the Roman soldier on the left. Below and above the central scene on the breastplate are images of divinities. Helios is the sun god at the top, and at the bottom is a god holding a cornucopia, which suggests all the bounty and prosperity that Augustus can supply. Then, looking at other parts of the statue, we can see the other ways that Augustus is trying to tell us about himself. You see that little boy at his feet? That’s Cupid. He has wings here, but Cupid was often represented without them, too. Augustus uses Cupid specifically here to show his divine heritage. He claims descent from Venus — through his great-uncle Julius Caesar —and Cupid was Venus’s son.”
You look closely at the image of the statue. “It’s interesting how Roman art focused so often on children,” you say.
“It did,” Lisa says. “Augustus especially wanted to promote childbearing. He even made laws that taxed bachelors and gave special benefits to families. He was very pro-family, so the little Cupid figure here is also tied to that.”
Lisa suddenly jumps up and hurries toward the door of the bus. “Quick,” she says. “This is our stop.” ]
(click: "This is our stop")+(t8n:'dissolve')[You follow Lisa through the bus door and out into the rising heat of the day. You see the Colosseum in the distance.
<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/e937f7dfac42f03cabb9096d50e985f7/580f36df93ae5430-4a/s1280x1920/f98fe7fc14325ef7aca1c61e93190021c60acaca.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
“What street is this?” you ask.
“The Via dei Fori Imperiali,” Lisa responds. “It was created by Mussolini in the 1920s and early 1930s.”
[[“Mussolini?” you say. “Wasn’t he the fascist dictator of Italy who Hitler modeled himself after?”|fascist]]
[[“Mussolini?” you say. “Wasn’t he the communist leader of Italy during World War II?”|communist]]
]
(set: $progress to 7)
(float-box: "x====", "Y====")+(css: "font-size: 60%;")[Progress
(print: '<progress value="' + (text: $progress) + '" max="18"></progress>')]“You’ve got a good memory,” Lisa says, showing you her phone. “Re-read this paragraph from Coarelli. It’ll help you understand exactly what Caesar did.”
(click: "Coarelli")+(t8n:'dissolve')[You read:
//At the end of the Republic, when Rome was firmly established as the capital of an empire extending from Gaul (modern-day France) to Syria, the old Republican Forum was no longer adequate to the functions of central administration and public relations. The first to address these needs by initiating the construction of a new monumental complex (as early as 54 BC) was Julius Caesar, who presented the project initially as a simple enlargement of the old Forum. Caesar’s subsequent alterations of the Republican Forum were more radical, entailing the virtual elimination of the Comitium (meeting place of the earliest organized voting of the Republic), replaced in part by the new Forum Iulium (Forum of Caesar), and the reconstruction of the Curia Hostilia, the ancient seat of the Roman Senate, in a different location, which essentially transformed the new senate house, the Curia Iulia, named after Julius Caesar, into an annex of Caesar’s Forum. Construction of the Basilica Julia on a scale much larger than its predecessor, the Basilica Sempronia, and renovation of the Basilica Fulvia-Aemilia completed the total reconfiguration of the Forum’s long sides.
Augustus, though more cautious and hesitant than his great-uncle Julius, nonetheless had to take into account the revolutionary development that Julius had begun in his own building program...//
“You see!” Lisa says. “Caesar’s new buildings, all named after himself, made it clear that he was the real center, the real power of Rome. Here,” she says, typing on her phone, “look at this picture.” ]
(click: "this picture")+(t8n:'dissolve')[You look at her phone:
<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/2506126e039d447d43300393d339c3e9/4b272a2008f2ab97-37/s1280x1920/7ab0b7dd9eaa2476b05b7aa81c22fdbb3560082b.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
“The Basilica Julia,” Lisa says, “is in the bottom left, marked number 23. And just above that, you can see the Curia, where the Senate met, which Julius Caesar also built — its full name was the Curia Julia. And then above that is the Forum of Caesar. He made himself his //own// forum. He was the first ruler to do this. You saw Trajan’s Forum on your walk to get to my house... that was built about 150 years after Caesar died. Many later rulers followed the model of Caesar and built their own forum, but he was the first. He designed it so that you would have to enter his own forum from the Roman Forum itself, suggesting that they were closely connected. In his forum, he had a temple to Venus Genetrix, or Venus the Mother, because he wanted to advertise that he was descended from Venus.”
“Okay,” you say, looking at the plan, “but what about above Caesar’s Forum? Augustus made a forum, too, that was connected to Julius Caesar’s? Who was Augustus again?”
“Augustus was Caesar’s great-nephew, and later, his adopted son and heir. You remember him from the show you watched last night?” She types into her phone. “Let me see if I can find a picture of him in the show...” ]
(click: "picture of him")+(t8n:'dissolve')[You look over at her phone.
<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/1b30f5ff911cf6964adbc58824914e3f/1ed5363f52326df8-8b/s400x600/b7409e4f87b989e14f58946b8bcf8092302b010b.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
“I remember him,” you say. “He was kidnapped while he was going to visit Julius Caesar, and then he was rescued by the two soldiers. But they didn’t call him Augustus, did they?”
“No,” says Lisa, “he was called Octavian when he was younger. After Julius Caesar dies, the power in Rome eventually gets split between Octavian and one of Caesar’s generals, Mark Antony. Mark Antony falls in love with Cleopatra, and they end up fighting a civil war against Octavian and his friend and general Agrippa. Octavian wins, and Mark Antony and Cleopatra escape to Egypt, where they commit suicide. Horrible, but romantic, I suppose, in a //Romeo and Juliet// kind of way. You should watch the whole //Rome// series if you want to learn more about it. But anyway, Octavian eventually consolidates power and becomes the first true emperor. He takes a number of new titles, including Augustus, which comes from the Latin word //augur// meaning to grow or increase. He initially thought about taking the name Romulus but thought that was too much, even for him, so he decided on Augustus, which basically means ‘the Great One.’”
Lisa smirks, and then continues. “After he takes the name Augustus, what does he do then? He builds, just like his great-uncle! Here,” she says, typing into her phone. “Look again at the plan of the Roman Forum and its environs."]
(click: "Roman Forum and its environs")+(t8n:'dissolve')["Just above the Forum of Caesar, you’ll see the forum that Augustus built perpendicular to it. And some of the emperors after him, most notably Trajan, continued with that tradition by building their own fora — that’s the plural of forum.”
<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/2506126e039d447d43300393d339c3e9/4b272a2008f2ab97-37/s1280x1920/7ab0b7dd9eaa2476b05b7aa81c22fdbb3560082b.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
“So Augustus became the first emperor — not king, though, right?” you ask. “I’m confused because I know there were kings too, weren’t there?” ]
(click: "kings too")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“Yes, there were kings in Rome’s earliest days. The first was Romulus, who, according to legend, was nursed by a she-wolf and founded Rome on the Palatine Hill in 753 BCE. After that, there were other kings... the last one was Tarquin the Proud, who was kicked out in 509 BCE. That was the beginning of the Republic, when Roman citizens could vote for almost all of their officials. The Republic lasted almost 500 years, all the way up until Augustus became the first emperor in 27 BCE. He did away with most of the elections for high offices. The Roman Senate continued to exist, and there was still voting by citizens in smaller local elections, but the real power was in the hands of the emperors from the time of Augustus forward.”
“I’m starting to see how things fit together,” you say, “at least a little. Pompey, then Caesar, and then Augustus took power, but they built these incredible things that the people of Rome were able to use in different ways, and that also furthered specific political aims. Is that right, at least in a basic sense?”
“Yes,” says Lisa. “They used architecture, but they used art, too. Look at this statue of Augustus. It’s quite famous — it’s called the Augustus of Primaporta. This statue is beautiful, but it’s also pure propaganda.”
Lisa shows you an image on her phone: ]
(click: "image on her phone")+(t8n:'dissolve')[<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/c0dd5cc613fc1c850849d8f9771c8e70/f7a91558fc4a104a-2e/s1280x1920/d7e058c1db87fc1b0f0dbf056bbb92d2481140ce.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
“Augustus,” Lisa says, “is presented as a military commander with his breastplate but also as a leader of the people. See how he’s holding out his arm, as if to address a crowd? Look closely at his breastplate.” Lisa scrolls down to another image: ]
(click: "another image")+(t8n:'dissolve')[<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/ed5f0667adc8d6135a2a4c90b466d624/863d4ff639080256-2f/s1280x1920/12a83eca544923e63bac6448c1242b4161271fcd.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
“The scene on Augustus’s breastplate,” Lisa explains, “tells of his military victories. The figure on the right is a captured Parthian — Parthia was located basically in modern-day Iran — who was handing over the military standards, a symbol of victory, to the Roman soldier on the left. Below and above the central scene on the breastplate are images of divinities. Helios is the sun god at the top, and at the bottom is a god holding a cornucopia, which suggests all the bounty and prosperity that Augustus can supply. Then, looking at other parts of the statue, we can see the other ways that Augustus is trying to tell us about himself. You see that little boy at his feet? That’s Cupid. He has wings here, but Cupid was often represented without them, too. Augustus uses Cupid specifically here to show his divine heritage. He claims descent from Venus — through his great-uncle Julius Caesar —and Cupid was Venus’s son.”
You look closely at the image of the statue. “It’s interesting how Roman art focused so often on children,” you say.
“It did,” Lisa says. “Augustus especially wanted to promote childbearing. He even made laws that taxed bachelors and gave special benefits to families. He was very pro-family, so the little Cupid figure here is also tied to that.”
Lisa suddenly jumps up and hurries toward the door of the bus. “Quick,” she says. “This is our stop.” ]
(click: "This is our stop")+(t8n:'dissolve')[You follow Lisa through the bus door and out into the rising heat of the day. You see the Colosseum in the distance.
<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/e937f7dfac42f03cabb9096d50e985f7/580f36df93ae5430-4a/s1280x1920/f98fe7fc14325ef7aca1c61e93190021c60acaca.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
“What street is this?” you ask.
“The Via dei Fori Imperiali,” Lisa responds. “It was created by Mussolini in the 1920s and early 1930s.”
[[“Mussolini?” you say. “Wasn’t he the fascist dictator of Italy who Hitler modeled himself after?”|fascist]]
[[“Mussolini?” you say. “Wasn’t he the communist leader of Italy during World War II?”|communist]]
]
(set: $progress to 7)
(float-box: "x====", "Y====")+(css: "font-size: 60%;")[Progress
(print: '<progress value="' + (text: $progress) + '" max="18"></progress>')]“Yes,” Lisa says gravely. “Mussolini wanted to bring back the glory of the Roman Empire, and he modeled himself primarily on the first emperor, Augustus. He bulldozed old buildings and churches in order to make this wide street here — the Via dei Fori Imperiali. He did this to create a parade route from the Colosseum to the Piazza Venezia, where the Victor Emmanuel Monument is. Mussolini wanted the parade to pass by all the imperial fora on its way, in order to connect him with all the Roman emperors. In the process of creating this parade route, Mussolini’s people ‘excavated’ — if you can call it that — many of the ruins you see around you.”
“That’s a good thing, right?” you say. “I mean, I know Mussolini did horrible things, but digging up new archaeological treasures, isn’t that a little bit good, at least?”
“Yes and no,” Lisa answers. “Mussolini’s people dug quickly and carelessly: they didn’t record what had been excavated where, and in the end, there were many unmarked crates full of antiquities, but no one could study them properly because they didn’t know anything about their context. They also didn’t care at all about the Late Antique or medieval periods — they only wanted to get down to the flashy imperial period.”
[[“Sounds like the end of //Indiana Jones// — you know, that huge warehouse where they put the Ark at the end, and it just disappears forever, unstudied, unused.”|Raiders]]
[[“That’s sad.”|sad]]
(set: $progress to 8)
(float-box: "x====", "Y====")+(css: "font-size: 60%;")[Progress
(print: '<progress value="' + (text: $progress) + '" max="18"></progress>')]“You’re partially right,” Lisa says. “Mussolini was the leader of Italy for the beginning of World War II. He was a fascist ally of Hitler, and he was kicked out after United States forces invaded Italy. Before that, Mussolini had fantasies of bringing back the glory of the Roman Empire, while modeling himself primarily on the first emperor, Augustus. He bulldozed old buildings and churches in order to make this wide street here — the Via dei Fori Imperiali. He did this to create a parade route from the Colosseum to the Piazza Venezia, where the Victor Emmanuel Monument is. Mussolini wanted the parade to pass by all the imperial fora on its way, in order to connect him with all the Roman emperors. In the process of creating this parade route, Mussolini’s people ‘excavated’ — if you can call it that — many of the ruins you see around you.”
“That’s a good thing, right?” you say. “I mean, I know Mussolini did horrible things, but digging up new archaeological treasures, isn’t that a little bit good, at least?”
“Yes and no,” Lisa answers. “Mussolini’s people dug quickly and carelessly: they didn’t record what had been excavated where, and in the end, there were many unmarked crates full of antiquities, but no one could study them properly because they didn’t know anything about their context. They also didn’t care at all about the Late Antique or medieval periods — they only wanted to get down to the flashy imperial period.”
[[“Sounds like the end of //Indiana Jones// — you know, that huge warehouse where they put the Ark at the end, and it just disappears forever, unstudied, unused.”|Raiders]]
[[“That’s sad.”|sad]]
(set: $progress to 8)
(float-box: "x====", "Y====")+(css: "font-size: 60%;")[Progress
(print: '<progress value="' + (text: $progress) + '" max="18"></progress>')]Lisa smiles. “Yes, but the ark was dangerous, and you could argue that when it was hidden in the warehouse, no one could use it as a weapon. But what Mussolini did... if he had left things where they were, they would have been left for future archaeologists to excavate properly and scientifically, so that they could be truly learned from.” She shakes her head. “Such a tragedy. But then, Mussolini was hardly the only one to take this approach. The //tombaroli// dig in this way today — their motivation, though, is profit, while Mussolini’s was political. He was reviving the Roman Empire... quite literally, with himself as the new Augustus.”
(click: "dig in this way today")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“Who are the //tombaroli//?”
“The word means ‘tomb robbers,’” she says. “Only they don’t just break into tombs. They dig up antiquities of all kinds, rip them out of their context — unrecorded, of course. They often break them into pieces, too, and sell them in bits in order to smuggle them out of the country more safely and sell them on the black market.”
“They break ancient artworks into pieces?”
Lisa sighs. “All the time.”
“But isn’t it illegal?”
“Oh, yes,” Lisa says. “But they dig at night, usually, and there’s so much under the ground here, in so many places. Some of the //tombaroli// are clever, too, and are hard to catch.” ]
(click: "hard to catch")+(t8n:'dissolve')[You’re now approaching the entrance to the Roman Forum, and Lisa takes an ID card out of her bag. She goes up to a woman at the ticket booth, who looks up, annoyed, from a computer. “//Chiuso//,” the woman shouts though the glass, and then immediately looks back at her computer screen.
Lisa leans toward you and whispers, “They’re not open yet, but I should be able to get us in.” She taps on the glass and, showing the woman her ID, rattles off several quick sentences in Italian. The woman frowns and reluctantly waves you through.
After putting your things through a metal detector and getting a yawn and a nod from the security guard, you walk forward, and the Roman Forum — the heart of the ancient city — opens up before you. ]
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After your tour, as Lisa suggested, you both sit down on a travertine bench in the shade.
“You remember how I mentioned ‘fornix’ earlier?” Lisa asks, fanning herself with her guidebook. “Google ‘fornix,’ along with the keywords ‘statues near Roman Forum,’ to find something nearby for us to go see.”
You get out your phone (which seems to be working more reliably today) and Google these terms. You see the following search results: ]
(click: "You see the following search results")+(t8n:'dissolve')[<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/100209921096f893aba81da03ca3c386/433dc75dd88bcc6a-98/s1280x1920/e64f80d2eb540d380de7c2fce79fd65a14f2e55f.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
“Good find,” she says, peering at your phone. “Why don’t you click on that work by Katherine Welch. Pay special attention to what it says about statues.”
“Like what?” you ask.
“Like what kind of statues were in the Colosseum, where they were placed, and why.”
“Okay,” you say.
“I’ll catch up on some emails while you’re reading,” Lisa says, getting out her phone. “It’s a pleasant place to sit, isn’t it?”
“Not bad,” you say, taking a sip of deliciously cold water from your water bottle.
“Oh, and before you start,” she says, “have you seen the movie //Gladiator// with Russell Crowe?”
[[“Yeah, I’ve seen it, although it’s been a while...”|seen Gladiator]]
[[No, I haven’t seen that movie. Is it any good?”|not seen Gladiator]] ]
(set: $progress to 9)
(float-box: "x====", "Y====")+(css: "font-size: 60%;")[Progress
(print: '<progress value="' + (text: $progress) + '" max="18"></progress>')]“Yes, it’s very sad,” Lisa says. “What Mussolini did... if he had left things where they were, they would have been left for future archaeologists to excavate properly and scientifically, so that they could be truly learned from.” She shakes her head. “Such a tragedy. But then, Mussolini was hardly the only one to take this approach. The //tombaroli// dig in this way today — their motivation, though, is profit, while Mussolini’s was political. He was reviving the Roman Empire... quite literally, with himself as the new Augustus.”
(click: "dig in this way today")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“Who are the //tombaroli//?”
“The word means ‘tomb robbers,’” she says. “Only they don’t just break into tombs. They dig up antiquities of all kinds, rip them out of their context — unrecorded, of course. They often break them into pieces, too, and sell them in bits in order to smuggle them out of the country more safely and sell them on the black market.”
“They break ancient artworks into pieces?”
Lisa sighs. “All the time.”
“But isn’t it illegal?”
“Oh, yes,” Lisa says. “But they dig at night, usually, and there’s so much under the ground here, in so many places. Some of the //tombaroli// are clever, too, and are hard to catch.” ]
(click: "hard to catch")+(t8n:'dissolve')[You’re now approaching the entrance to the Roman Forum, and Lisa takes an ID card out of her bag. She goes up to a woman at the ticket booth, who looks up, annoyed, from a computer. “//Chiuso//,” the woman shouts though the glass, and then immediately looks back at her computer screen.
Lisa leans toward you and whispers, “They’re not open yet, but I should be able to get us in.” She taps on the glass and, showing the woman her ID, rattles off several quick sentences in Italian. The woman frowns and reluctantly waves you through.
After putting your things through a metal detector and getting a yawn and a nod from the security guard, you walk forward, and the Roman Forum — the heart of the ancient city — opens up before you. ]
(click: "opens up before you")+(t8n:'dissolve')[<iframe src="https://gauchocast.hosted.panopto.com/Panopto/Pages/Embed.aspx?id=212e4d54-1697-4a5b-9ee0-b0430170a45e&autoplay=false&offerviewer=true&showtitle=true&showbrand=true&captions=false&interactivity=all" height="405" width="720" style="border: 1px solid #464646;" allowfullscreen allow="autoplay"></iframe>
After your tour, as Lisa suggested, you both sit down on a travertine bench in the shade.
“You remember how I mentioned ‘fornix’ earlier?” Lisa asks, fanning herself with her guidebook. “Google ‘fornix,’ along with the keywords ‘statues near Roman Forum,’ to find something nearby for us to go see.”
You get out your phone (which seems to be working more reliably today) and Google these terms. You see the following search results: ]
(click: "You see the following search results")+(t8n:'dissolve')[<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/100209921096f893aba81da03ca3c386/433dc75dd88bcc6a-98/s1280x1920/e64f80d2eb540d380de7c2fce79fd65a14f2e55f.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
“Good find,” she says, peering at your phone. “Why don’t you click on that work by Katherine Welch. Pay special attention to what it says about statues.”
“Like what?” you ask.
“Like what kind of statues were in the Colosseum, where they were placed, and why.”
“Okay,” you say.
“I’ll catch up on some emails while you’re reading,” Lisa says, getting out her phone. “It’s a pleasant place to sit, isn’t it?”
“Not bad,” you say, taking a sip of deliciously cold water from your water bottle.
“Oh, and before you start,” she says, “have you seen the movie //Gladiator// with Russell Crowe?”
[[“Yeah, I’ve seen it, although it’s been a while...”|seen Gladiator]]
[[No, I haven’t seen that movie. Is it any good?”|not seen Gladiator]] ]
(set: $progress to 9)
(float-box: "x====", "Y====")+(css: "font-size: 60%;")[Progress
(print: '<progress value="' + (text: $progress) + '" max="18"></progress>')]“You’ve seen it — good,” Lisa says. “Do you remember the part where the gladiators, including the Russell Crowe character, come to Rome and see the Colosseum for the first time?”
You shake your head. “I don’t remember it that well.”
“One of the characters, the old man who owns the gladiators — if you didn’t know, gladiators were often slaves who could win their freedom if they performed well — well, this old man, who was once a gladiator himself, he kisses the feet of the statue of the god Mars in this one scene. Let me see if I can find it...” She types away on her phone. “Here’s the clip — it says something about one of the ways the ancient Romans interacted with statues.”
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After you watch the clip, you say, “So he was praying to Mars — through the symbol of the statue, it looks like — for good fortune in the Colosseum.” ]
(click: "symbol")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“Yup,” Lisa says. “And did you notice the statues in the fornices of the Colosseum’s façade? Welch talks about that — as well as some other things — in that chapter you found from her book.”
Lisa then starts scrolling through her email, giving you the space to read the chapter from Welch’s book. ]
(click: "read the chapter")+(t8n:'dissolve')[//(To download the PDF, click on the “pop-out” button in the upper right corner of the document. That will open a new window, and from there you can read and/or download the PDF. Do not read sections and pages crossed out with red.) //
<iframe src="https://drive.google.com/file/d/14yheEyKo-kXJkZeeFD-4KdWbuHvs8P5M/preview" style="width:100%;max-width:896px;height:672px">
</iframe>
Once you finish reading the chapter, you turn to Lisa. “The Colosseum actually held 50,000 people? That seems like a lot for such a long time ago.” ]
(click: "50,000")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“It does feel modern in some ways, doesn’t it?” Lisa says. “After all, Dodger Stadium holds 56,000 people, which is about the same amount.”
“But people don’t go to see people kill each other in Dodger Stadium,” you say.
“Not all Romans liked the games. Seneca, who wrote about the baths, thought gladiatorial games were horrific. Go back to that Google search page you pulled up, with the link to the Welch reading.”
You navigate back to your recent search: ]
(click: "navigate back to your recent search")+(t8n:'dissolve')[<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/100209921096f893aba81da03ca3c386/433dc75dd88bcc6a-98/s1280x1920/e64f80d2eb540d380de7c2fce79fd65a14f2e55f.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
“Click on that link there that says ‘Ancient Sources about the Colosseum.’”]
(click: "Ancient Sources about the Colosseum")+(t8n:'dissolve')[You click on it, and a PDF opens up, which you read:
//(To download the PDF, click on the “pop-out” button in the upper right corner of the document. That will open a new window, and from there you can read and/or download the PDF.) //
<iframe src="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1e_mdAbrdsV5g8-8dWmIfNJarTAoGQV4P/preview" style="width:100%;max-width:896px;height:672px"></iframe>
After you finish reading, you say, “I’m trying to picture what it must have been like to go to games in the Colosseum.” ]
(click: "to go to games")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“Well, if you were coming from the Forum here, you might have taken the Via Sacra. It leads straight to the Colosseum, which would have dominated the landscape. As you approached, you would have seen the massive bronze statue out in front of the amphitheater — the 100-foot-tall Colossus of the emperor Nero, which, after he was disgraced, was changed to the sun god Sol by the next emperor, Vespasian. Actually, the name ‘Colosseum’ comes from the Colossus of Nero. But that was later... at the time the amphitheater was built, it was simply referred to as the Flavian Amphitheater, after Vespasian’s last name. The Colossus is not the same as the one of Mars in //Gladiator//. Here’s an artist’s rendering,” she says, showing you her phone.
<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/e14f4546117aaba4e6d05a8d5806ea78/b4691a0da133dfd9-eb/s640x960/e667cf54d9b1ae860ac967f24a006d11eb5f45ee.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
“Aside from the Colossus of Nero, the statues in the fornices of the Colosseum’s façade would also have stood out. According to Welch, they would have been made of gilded bronze and, when polished, would have shined brightly golden in the sun. They would have been of Greek gods and heroes — Greek culture was very important to the Romans.”
“Yeah, I remember from the reading that a few of the statue types, which they know from a relief carved into a tomb, were Apollo and...
[[...Hercules.”|Hercules]]
[[...Poseidon.”|Poseidon]] ]
(set: $progress to 10)
(float-box: "x====", "Y====")+(css: "font-size: 60%;")[Progress
(print: '<progress value="' + (text: $progress) + '" max="18"></progress>')]“You should watch it when you have time,” Lisa says. “There’s a part where the gladiators, including the Russell Crowe character, come to Rome and see the Colosseum for the first time. The old man, Proximo, who owns the gladiators — if you didn’t know, gladiators were often slaves who could win their freedom if they performed well — well, this old man, who was once a gladiator himself, he kisses the feet of the statue of the god Mars in this one scene. Let me see if I can find it...” She types away on her phone. “Here’s the clip — it says something about one of the ways the ancient Romans interacted with statues.”
(click: "the clip")+(t8n:'dissolve')[<iframe src="https://gauchocast.hosted.panopto.com/Panopto/Pages/Embed.aspx?id=039f6b65-f283-4f54-963f-ac4600e6ca24&autoplay=false&offerviewer=true&showtitle=true&showbrand=false&start=0&interactivity=all" height="504" width="896" style="border: 1px solid #464646;" allowfullscreen allow="autoplay"></iframe>
After you watch the clip, you say, “So he was praying to Mars — through the symbol of the statue, it looks like — for good fortune in the Colosseum.” ]
(click: "symbol")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“Yup,” Lisa says. “And did you notice the statues in the fornices of the Colosseum’s façade? Welch talks about that — as well as some other things — in that chapter you found from her book.”
Lisa then starts scrolling through her email, giving you the space to read the chapter from Welch’s book. ]
(click: "read the chapter")+(t8n:'dissolve')[//(To download the PDF, click on the “pop-out” button in the upper right corner of the document. That will open a new window, and from there you can read and/or download the PDF. Do not read sections and pages crossed out with red.) //
<iframe src="https://drive.google.com/file/d/14yheEyKo-kXJkZeeFD-4KdWbuHvs8P5M/preview" style="width:100%;max-width:896px;height:672px">
</iframe>
Once you finish reading the chapter, you turn to Lisa. “The Colosseum actually held 50,000 people? That seems like a lot for such a long time ago.” ]
(click: "50,000")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“It does feel modern in some ways, doesn’t it?” Lisa says. “After all, Dodger Stadium holds 56,000 people, which is about the same amount.”
“But people don’t go to see people kill each other in Dodger Stadium,” you say.
“Not all Romans liked the games. Seneca, who wrote about the baths, thought gladiatorial games were horrific. Go back to that Google search page you pulled up, with the link to the Welch reading.”
You navigate back to your recent search: ]
(click: "navigate back to your recent search")+(t8n:'dissolve')[<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/100209921096f893aba81da03ca3c386/433dc75dd88bcc6a-98/s1280x1920/e64f80d2eb540d380de7c2fce79fd65a14f2e55f.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
“Click on that link there that says ‘Ancient Sources about the Colosseum.’”]
(click: "Ancient Sources about the Colosseum")+(t8n:'dissolve')[You click on it, and a PDF opens up, which you read:
//(To download the PDF, click on the “pop-out” button in the upper right corner of the document. That will open a new window, and from there you can read and/or download the PDF.) //
<iframe src="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1e_mdAbrdsV5g8-8dWmIfNJarTAoGQV4P/preview" style="width:100%;max-width:896px;height:672px"></iframe>
After you finish reading, you say, “I’m trying to picture what it must have been like to go to games in the Colosseum.” ]
(click: "to go to games")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“Well, if you were coming from the Forum here, you might have taken the Via Sacra. It leads straight to the Colosseum, which would have dominated the landscape. As you approached, you would have seen the massive bronze statue out in front of the amphitheater — the 100-foot-tall Colossus of the emperor Nero, which, after he was disgraced, was changed to the sun god Sol by the next emperor, Vespasian. Actually, the name ‘Colosseum’ comes from the Colossus of Nero. But that was later... at the time the amphitheater was built, it was simply referred to as the Flavian Amphitheater, after Vespasian’s last name. The Colossus is not the same as the one of Mars in //Gladiator//. Here’s an artist’s rendering,” she says, showing you her phone.
<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/e14f4546117aaba4e6d05a8d5806ea78/b4691a0da133dfd9-eb/s640x960/e667cf54d9b1ae860ac967f24a006d11eb5f45ee.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
“Aside from the Colossus of Nero, the statues in the fornices of the Colosseum’s façade would also have stood out. According to Welch, they would have been made of gilded bronze and, when polished, would have shined brightly golden in the sun. They would have been of Greek gods and heroes — Greek culture was very important to the Romans.”
“Yeah, I remember from the reading that a few of the statue types, which they know from a relief carved into a tomb, were Apollo and...
[[...Hercules.”|Hercules]]
[[...Poseidon.”|Poseidon]] ]
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(float-box: "x====", "Y====")+(css: "font-size: 60%;")[Progress
(print: '<progress value="' + (text: $progress) + '" max="18"></progress>')]“That’s right,” Lisa says. “Hercules with his club and lion skin was a common subject for statues in the ancient world. There’s a particularly famous version called the Farnese Hercules, or the Weary Hercules.”
She calls an image up on her phone and shows it to you:
(click: "She calls an image up on her phone and shows it to you")+(t8n:'dissolve')[<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/dcbc596c90552305f4e7d7f5dcf612b2/0508978bdb866b01-63/s1280x1920/e5c2ae6bfe80a83c8e7c7e0e728540d24e216545.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
“This statue,” Lisa says, “was a Roman copy, made during the 3rd century CE, from an original bronze statue crafted by the Greek sculptor Lysippos in the 4th century BCE. As you can see, there is a focus on musculature and intensity of expression. Hercules here has just completed his Labors and is understandably exhausted, as he leans on his club for support. Yet the musculature in his torso and legs is still taut and well defined. The statue was found in the ruins of a bath complex here in Rome — the Baths of the emperor Caracalla.” ]
(click: "musculature in his torso")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“Looks like the Hercules statue was inspirational,” you say, “but also created empathy for the struggles and suffering he went through.”
“Yes, there’s a lot to it, isn’t there?” Lisa says. “He was inspirational in the bath context to people who were working out and getting stronger and more muscular.”
“But it’d be different in the context of the Colosseum, right?” you say.
“In some ways different,” replies Lisa. “And in some ways the same.”
“They probably weren’t ‘weary,’ were they?”
“It’s hard to know for sure, but in my opinion, probably not,” Lisa says.
“The Colosseum Hercules must have been a more heroic and energetic version, standing tall and prepping for a big fight.”
Lisa nods. “That’s a good guess, but since the original statues were lost to us, we can only base our knowledge on literary and artistic accounts of the time period, which we know can sometimes be biased.” ]
(click: "be biased")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“And so the statues would have inspired people to be courageous and do great deeds on the battlefield. Or arena, in this case.”
“Yes,” Lisa says. “There’s also another dimension. Remember that Hercules was being punished with twelve great labors because he killed his children. He was a criminal... just like the criminals who were put to death in the Colosseum. This happened in the lunchtime intermission, when sometimes these criminals were chained up and then eaten by vicious animals. So, lunchtime for the animals too. I’ll tell you more about that when we go inside.”
Lisa continues. “A statue of Hercules, with his story, his horrible crime, his labors, his strength, his suffering, would have said something to both the performers in the Colosseum — if I can call them that — and the audience. In his attempt to redeem himself, he became a god.” ]
(click: "became a god")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“The story goes that Hercules, who was the son of Zeus and a mortal woman, performed many deeds, but also went crazy from time to time,” Lisa tells you. “During one of his bouts of madness, he killed his children, and when he came to himself, he was consumed with grief and was about to kill himself, but he was stopped by his cousin Theseus, who convinced him to try to atone for what he had done. So he performed twelve great labors that required superhuman strength and endurance. After that, he went through more trials and tragedy, including becoming a slave. He was eventually poisoned, along with his new wife, and as he lay there — facing death with courage, like the gladiators — Zeus took his divine half up to Mount Olympus, where he lives on with the other gods.”
“I’m starting to see why having his statue in the Colosseum would have made sense,” you say.
“I’m told many people feel inspired watching sports in Dodger Stadium, or watching boxing or — that other thing where they beat each other up in cage fights,” Lisa says. “Although I don’t watch any of that myself.”
[[“I don’t either.”|no sports]]
[[“I watch a lot of sports, and yeah, what the athletes do is inspiring!”|watch sports]] ]
(set: $progress to 11)
(float-box: "x====", "Y====")+(css: "font-size: 60%;")[Progress
(print: '<progress value="' + (text: $progress) + '" max="18"></progress>')]“Actually, no,” Lisa says. “It was Hercules with his club and lion skin: he was a common subject for statues in the ancient world. There’s a particularly famous version called the Farnese Hercules, or the Weary Hercules.”
She calls an image up on her phone and shows it to you:
(click: "She calls an image up on her phone and shows it to you")+(t8n:'dissolve')[<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/dcbc596c90552305f4e7d7f5dcf612b2/0508978bdb866b01-63/s1280x1920/e5c2ae6bfe80a83c8e7c7e0e728540d24e216545.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
“This statue,” Lisa says, “was sculpted during what we call the ‘Hellenistic Period,’ which dates from 323 BCE to 27 BCE. As you can see in the statue, this period is characterized by a focus on musculature and intensity of expression. Hercules here has just completed his labors and is understandably exhausted, as he leans on his club for support. Yet the musculature in his torso and legs is still taut and well defined. About 400 or so years after this was sculpted, it was moved to a bath complex here in Rome — the Baths of the emperor Caracalla.” ]
(click: "musculature in his torso")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“Looks like the Hercules statue was inspirational,” you say, “but also created empathy for the struggles and suffering he went through.”
“Yes, there’s a lot to it, isn’t there?” Lisa says. “He was inspirational in the bath context to people who were working out and getting stronger and more muscular.”
“But it’d be different in the context of the Colosseum, right?” you say.
“In some ways different,” replies Lisa. “And in some ways the same.”
“They probably weren’t ‘weary,’ were they?”
“It’s hard to know for sure, but in my opinion, probably not,” Lisa says.
“The Colosseum Hercules must have been a more heroic and energetic version, standing tall and prepping for a big fight.”
Lisa nods. “That’s a good guess, but since the original statues were lost to us, we can only base our knowledge on literary and artistic accounts of the time period, which we know can sometimes be biased.” ]
(click: "be biased")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“And so the statues would have inspired people to be courageous and do great deeds on the battlefield. Or arena, in this case.”
“Yes,” Lisa says. “There’s also another dimension. Remember that Hercules was being punished with twelve great labors because he killed his children. He was a criminal... just like the criminals who were put to death in the Colosseum. This happened in the lunchtime intermission, when sometimes these criminals were chained up and then eaten by vicious animals. So, lunchtime for the animals too. I’ll tell you more about that when we go inside.”
Lisa continues. “A statue of Hercules, with his story, his horrible crime, his labors, his strength, his suffering, would have said something to both the performers in the Colosseum — if I can call them that — and the audience. In his attempt to redeem himself, he became a god.” ]
(click: "became a god")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“The story goes that Hercules, who was the son of Zeus and a mortal woman, performed many deeds, but also went crazy from time to time,” Lisa tells you. “During one of his bouts of madness, he killed his children, and when he came to himself, he was consumed with grief and was about to kill himself, but he was stopped by his cousin Theseus, who convinced him to try to atone for what he had done. So he performed twelve great labors that required superhuman strength and endurance. After that, he went through more trials and tragedy, including becoming a slave. He was eventually poisoned, along with his new wife, and as he lay there — facing death with courage, like the gladiators — Zeus took his divine half up to Mount Olympus, where he lives on with the other gods.”
“I’m starting to see why having his statue in the Colosseum would have made sense,” you say.
“I’m told many people feel inspired watching sports in Dodger Stadium, or watching boxing or — that other thing where they beat each other up in cage fights,” Lisa says. “Although I don’t watch any of that myself.”
[[“I don’t either.”|no sports]]
[[“I watch a lot of sports, and yeah, what the athletes do is inspiring!”|watch sports]] ]
(set: $progress to 11)
(float-box: "x====", "Y====")+(css: "font-size: 60%;")[Progress
(print: '<progress value="' + (text: $progress) + '" max="18"></progress>')]“I don’t really watch sports either,” you say.
“I watch the Olympic Games,” Lisa says, “partly because they were begun by the ancient Greeks. And whenever history is involved, I get interested. And I’ve seen great courage and feats that are almost godlike in those games. It’s hard not to be inspired to reach higher when you watch things like that.”
“Are you saying the main reason the ancient Romans went to the Colosseum was to be inspired?”
Lisa smiles. “I think there were many reasons — some of them were good, maybe even transcendent. But some were horrifying, like the lust for blood and carnage.”
You look up at the ruins of the Colosseum in the distance. “Can we go there now?”
(click: "ruins of the Colosseum")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“Why not?” Lisa answers, standing up and stretching. “It’s a relatively short walk through the Forum.”
As you walk toward the Colosseum, Lisa says, “If we’d had business at the Basilica Julia and then gotten some food in one of the market stalls lining the street here, we might then have decided to go see one of the games in the Colosseum. The emperors loved to have games going as often as possible in order to entertain the people and keep up their popular support.”
“Must have cost a lot of money,” you say.
“It cost money and lives — both human and animal.”
She points to the Colosseum. “What do you think it would have looked like as we approached it? Do you remember from the reading?”
[[“The top level was covered in gold; it shone in the sun like a divine halo, showing off the emperor’s wealth.”|emperor's wealth]]
[[“It was three stories tall and had Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian columns along with archways and vaulting.”|columns]] ]
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(float-box: "x====", "Y====")+(css: "font-size: 60%;")[Progress
(print: '<progress value="' + (text: $progress) + '" max="18"></progress>')]“I love sports,” you say. “They’re fun and inspiring. And in boxing and UFC ‘cage fights,’ as you called them, you have to at least admire the fighters’ courage, don’t you?”
“I don’t agree with that kind of fighting as entertainment,” Lisa says. “But I respect what you’re saying about the courage involved. Personally, I only really watch the Olympic Games, maybe because they were begun by the ancient Greeks. Whenever history is involved, I get excited. I’ve seen feats that are almost godlike in those games. It’s hard not to be inspired to reach higher when you watch things like that.”
“Are you saying the main reason the ancient Romans went to the Colosseum was to be inspired?”
Lisa smiles. “I think there were many reasons — some of them were good, maybe even transcendent. But some were horrifying, like the lust for blood and carnage.”
You look up at the ruins of the Colosseum in the distance. “Can we go there now?”
(click: "ruins of the Colosseum")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“Why not?” Lisa answers, standing up and stretching. “It’s a relatively short walk through the Forum.”
As you walk toward the Colosseum, Lisa says, “If we’d had business at the Basilica Julia and then gotten some food in one of the market stalls lining the street here, we might then have decided to go see one of the games in the Colosseum. The emperors loved to have games going as often as possible in order to entertain the people and keep up their popular support.”
“Must have cost a lot of money,” you say.
“It cost money and lives — both human and animal.”
She points to the Colosseum. “What do you think it would have looked like as we approached it? Do you remember from the reading?”
[[“The top level was covered in gold; it shone in the sun like a divine halo, showing off the emperor’s wealth.”|emperor's wealth]]
[[“It was three stories tall and had Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian columns along with archways and vaulting.”|columns]] ]
(set: $progress to 12)
(float-box: "x====", "Y====")+(css: "font-size: 60%;")[Progress
(print: '<progress value="' + (text: $progress) + '" max="18"></progress>')]“The whole exterior of the Colosseum was travertine, actually,” Lisa says.
“But there would have been a fine gold finish, or ‘gilding,’ convering the bronze statues in the fornices — and those would have shone brilliantly in the sun.”
“What are the fornices, again?” you ask.
“The archways,” Lisa replies.
“Oh yeah. In between those are columns, right? With different kinds of columns on each level?”
(click: "kinds of columns")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“That’s basically right,” Lisa says. “There are half-columns — ‘engaged columns,’ we call them, technically, in that they’re halfway embedded in the walls of the Colosseum. On the ground level are Tuscan columns, which are very similar to Doric columns — the simplest of the column types.”
“And above that, there are Ionic engaged columns, right?” you say. “I hadn’t heard of Tuscan columns before, but I learned about Ionic a long time ago — they have scrolls on top, as I remember.”
“That’s correct,” Lisa says. “I’ll find a picture of them... Here’s a drawing of the different types by Vignola, from the 1500s.” ]
(click: "Vignola")+(t8n:'dissolve')[<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/00cc48a6120f183cee6351197a4c0581/90b51fb82f51eb37-ce/s500x750/139a9ba9f50467bbce902b3882093a1b57e21066.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
“The third level of the façade, or face, of the Colosseum had Corinthian engaged columns, which have acanthus leaves on the top. And then on the fourth level of the Colosseum, or the attic, there were Corinthian pilasters. Pilasters are flat and decorative — they’re meant to suggest a column. I’ll find you a picture of a close-up of that...”]
(click: "close-up")+(t8n:'dissolve')[<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/eca4b1e9d63f7a683c8858f90e17e570/2c48456dba1f5395-c7/s1280x1920/91c3ae07b10bd3f91a3d747418f4a18fbeb81e7c.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
Lisa smiles. “Enough about architectural terms. Let’s explore the Colosseum. It’s starting to get hotter — there’s no time to lose!” ]
(click: "explore")+(t8n:'dissolve')[<iframe src="https://gauchocast.hosted.panopto.com/Panopto/Pages/Embed.aspx?id=17713e1e-7275-4026-93a4-ac45015e1dd1&autoplay=false&offerviewer=true&showtitle=true&showbrand=true&captions=true&interactivity=all" height="405" width="720" style="border: 1px solid #464646;" allowfullscreen allow="autoplay"></iframe>
You exit through one of the Colosseum’s archways and run with Lisa toward a parked bus about a hundred yards away. The bus begins moving slowly forward, and Lisa starts waving her arms wildly, shouting “Aspetti! Aspetti!”
To your surprise, the bus driver stops and opens the doors for you. “Grazie mille,” Lisa says to him as you climb aboard and validate your tickets. ]
(click: "Grazie mille")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“Okay,” Lisa says, sitting down next to you. “We’ve now toured two buildings that might give you a better picture as to where or how statues were used in antiquity. We looked at the statues of the Vestals in the Forum and the places where the statues would have been in the Colosseum, right?”
“Yeah,” you say. “But I’m still confused. You said that the statues of the Vestals as we saw them were actually not in their original position, right? That they were originally found by the excavators in a heap on one side of the building and then put on display. Also, at the Colosseum, we talked about the statues being in those archways on the second and third levels, facing outwards. But nothing remains, so how can you be so sure?”
“I like that you’re skeptical,” Lisa says. “We should always question what archaeologists and historians tell us, because theories can change when new evidence comes to light and a lot of it is subjective. But we can still get a pretty good idea of how things were, — in many cases, anyway — even when we don’t have all the evidence. You’re right, it was a long time ago, and they didn’t have cameras back then. But we can know certain things. Do you remember from the Welch reading how we know what the building originally looked like?”
[[“Architectural principles gleaned from the remains of ancient wooden models have helped archaeologists reconstruct a number of buildings, like the Colosseum and Pantheon.”|doll houses]]
[[“Coins and funerary reliefs, for starters!”|coins reliefs]] ]
(set: $progress to 13)
(float-box: "x====", "Y====")+(css: "font-size: 60%;")[Progress
(print: '<progress value="' + (text: $progress) + '" max="18"></progress>')]“That’s basically right,” Lisa says. “There are half-columns — ‘engaged columns,’ we call them, technically, in that they’re halfway embedded in the walls of the Colosseum. On the ground level are Tuscan columns, which are very similar to Doric columns — the simplest of the column types.”
“And above that, there are Ionic engaged columns, right?” you say. “I hadn’t heard of Tuscan columns before, but I learned about Ionic a long time ago — they have scrolls on top, as I remember.”
“That’s correct,” Lisa says. “I’ll find a picture of them... Here’s a drawing of the different types by Vignola, from the 1500s.”
(click: "Vignola")+(t8n:'dissolve')[<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/00cc48a6120f183cee6351197a4c0581/90b51fb82f51eb37-ce/s500x750/139a9ba9f50467bbce902b3882093a1b57e21066.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
“The third level of the façade, or face, of the Colosseum had Corinthian engaged columns, which have acanthus leaves on the top. And then on the fourth level of the Colosseum, or the attic, there were Corinthian pilasters. Pilasters are flat and decorative — they’re meant to suggest a column. I’ll find you a picture of a close-up of that...”]
(click: "close-up")+(t8n:'dissolve')[<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/eca4b1e9d63f7a683c8858f90e17e570/2c48456dba1f5395-c7/s1280x1920/91c3ae07b10bd3f91a3d747418f4a18fbeb81e7c.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
Lisa smiles. “Enough about architectural terms. Let’s explore the Colosseum. It’s starting to get hotter — there’s no time to lose!” ]
(click: "explore")+(t8n:'dissolve')[<iframe src="https://gauchocast.hosted.panopto.com/Panopto/Pages/Embed.aspx?id=17713e1e-7275-4026-93a4-ac45015e1dd1&autoplay=false&offerviewer=true&showtitle=true&showbrand=true&captions=true&interactivity=all" height="405" width="720" style="border: 1px solid #464646;" allowfullscreen allow="autoplay"></iframe>
You exit through one of the Colosseum’s archways and run with Lisa toward a parked bus about a hundred yards away. The bus begins moving slowly forward, and Lisa starts waving her arms wildly, shouting “Aspetti! Aspetti!”
To your surprise, the bus driver stops and opens the doors for you. “Grazie mille,” Lisa says to him as you climb aboard and validate your tickets. ]
(click: "Grazie mille")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“Okay,” Lisa says, sitting down next to you. “We’ve now toured two buildings that might give you a better picture as to where or how statues were used in antiquity. We looked at the statues of the Vestals in the Forum and the places where the statues would have been in the Colosseum, right?”
“Yeah,” you say. “But I’m still confused. You said that the statues of the Vestals as we saw them were actually not in their original position, right? That they were originally found by the excavators in a heap on one side of the building and then put on display. Also, at the Colosseum, we talked about the statues being in those archways on the second and third levels, facing outwards. But nothing remains, so how can you be so sure?”
“I like that you’re skeptical,” Lisa says. “We should always question what archaeologists and historians tell us, because theories can change when new evidence comes to light and a lot of it is subjective. But we can still get a pretty good idea of how things were, — in many cases, anyway — even when we don’t have all the evidence. You’re right, it was a long time ago, and they didn’t have cameras back then. But we can know certain things. Do you remember from the Welch reading how we know what the building originally looked like?”
[[“Architectural principles gleaned from the remains of ancient wooden models have helped archaeologists reconstruct a number of buildings, like the Colosseum and Pantheon.”|doll houses]]
[[“Coins and funerary reliefs, for starters!”|coins reliefs]] ]
(set: $progress to 13)
(float-box: "x====", "Y====")+(css: "font-size: 60%;")[Progress
(print: '<progress value="' + (text: $progress) + '" max="18"></progress>')]“There’s actually no evidence for ancient wooden models in Rome,” Lisa says.
“Oh,” you say.
“But we have evidence from sources like coins and reliefs — let me show you a picture or two...”
(click: "let me show you a picture or two")+(t8n:'dissolve')[<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/167f4d0319406df83eae977356e88ff5/7bcf595bc25401d2-5a/s2048x3072/98a5614c398a48abb7c041c84fdc4b63077f94ba.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/853b3b7e1e8eb4f607cd15608d298f13/c2b99e6b694a8685-0f/s1280x1920/1f86ad695290adc00353949910f844c1fdc2bdec.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
“So a relief,” you say uncertainly, “is when the 2D image is raised from its background... like if you touched it with your fingers, you could feel the sculpted figures, but you couldn’t walk around them, like with a full sculpture.”
“Right,” Lisa says. “It’s easier to see in other examples.” She scrolls through her phone. “Like this one.” ]
(click: "Like this one")+(t8n:'dissolve')[<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/cf566a61cb0ff8d5baded3362c5a33a2/c08a201f6fdcbd2a-5d/s1280x1920/731b75ddbca7cbb0e82976045e72e96fc75cef17.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
“That looks familiar,” you say.
Lisa raises her eyebrows. “Where do you think it’s from?”
[[“It’s from Trajan’s Column.”|Trajan col]]
[[“It’s from the Baths of Diocletian.”|Dio bath]] ]
(set: $progress to 14)
(float-box: "x====", "Y====")+(css: "font-size: 60%;")[Progress
(print: '<progress value="' + (text: $progress) + '" max="18"></progress>')]“Yup,” Lisa says. “We have evidence from sources like coins and reliefs — like these.”
(click: "coins and reliefs")+(t8n:'dissolve')[<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/167f4d0319406df83eae977356e88ff5/7bcf595bc25401d2-5a/s2048x3072/98a5614c398a48abb7c041c84fdc4b63077f94ba.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/853b3b7e1e8eb4f607cd15608d298f13/c2b99e6b694a8685-0f/s1280x1920/1f86ad695290adc00353949910f844c1fdc2bdec.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
“So a relief,” you say uncertainly, “is when the 2D image is raised from its background... like if you touched it with your fingers, you could feel the sculpted figures, but you couldn’t walk around them, like with a full sculpture.”
“Right,” Lisa says. “It’s easier to see in other examples.” She scrolls through her phone. “Like this one.” ]
(click: "Like this one")+(t8n:'dissolve')[<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/cf566a61cb0ff8d5baded3362c5a33a2/c08a201f6fdcbd2a-5d/s1280x1920/731b75ddbca7cbb0e82976045e72e96fc75cef17.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
“That looks familiar,” you say.
Lisa raises her eyebrows. “Where do you think it’s from?”
[[“It’s from Trajan’s Column.”|Trajan col]]
[[“It’s from the Baths of Diocletian.”|Dio bath]] ]
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(float-box: "x====", "Y====")+(css: "font-size: 60%;")[Progress
(print: '<progress value="' + (text: $progress) + '" max="18"></progress>')]“Right,” Lisa says. “Historians have learned quite a bit about the Roman military from Trajan’s Column. So, even when a lot of things are missing — like the statues on the second and third floors of the Colosseum, which were probably looted and melted down — some evidence still remains from contemporary literary or artistic depictions. That’s how we’re able to reconstruct, with a reasonable degree of accuracy, what the statues looked like and where they were placed.”
“That makes sense,” you say. “I remember learning about this in one of my seminars. When we talk about the original locations of statues or other ancient objects, we call it ‘context,’ right?”
(click: "context")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“Exactly,” says Lisa. “The statues we saw of the Vestals were not in their original contexts, but they’ve been placed by archaeologists in a way that’s meant to replicate where statues have been found in comparable ancient courtyard gardens with statues that have been preserved in places like Pompeii. Whereas with the missing statues in the Colosseum — since we don’t have them at all — we can only talk about their original context by using representations or descriptions of the building from the time period. When we get to the Pantheon, which is where we’re heading next, you’ll also see a case where we don’t have statues remaining, but we have the //place// where the statues would have gone. So we have to think not so much about the statue itself or what it might have shown, but more about where and how it was displayed... and how a viewer in the building would have seen it or interacted with it.” ]
(click: "or interacted with it")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“We always have to be aware of the original context when we look at antiquities and archaeological sites,” Lisa tells you. “You should think about what the original context for your statue from the Getty might have been — things like scale and placement in a building, and how viewers might have interacted with it, walked around it, or seen it. For example, did people see it from below, like with the Colosseum statues, or was your statue able to be walked around, like in the House of the Vestals?”
“Good question,” you say. “I’m also wondering... whether certain types of statues are usually found in certain types of places.”
“Can you tell me more about what you mean?” Lisa asks. “Like, what kind of statues did the Welch reading say were in the Colosseum?”
[[“Gods and heroes.”|Apollo and Herc]]
[[“Roman historical figures, like Romulus and the She-Wolf.”|Romulus wolf]] ]
(set: $progress to 15)
(float-box: "x====", "Y====")+(css: "font-size: 60%;")[Progress
(print: '<progress value="' + (text: $progress) + '" max="18"></progress>')] “No,” Lisa says. “This one is from Trajan’s Column, which has taught historians quite a bit about the Roman military. So, even when a lot of things are missing — like the statues on the second and third floors of the Colosseum, which were probably looted and melted down — some evidence still remains from contemporary literary or artistic depictions. That’s how we’re able to reconstruct, with a reasonable degree of accuracy, what the statues looked like and where they were placed.”
“That makes sense,” you say. “I remember learning about this in one of my seminars. When we talk about the original locations of statues or other ancient objects, we call it ‘context,’ right?”
(click: "context")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“Exactly,” says Lisa. “The statues we saw of the Vestals were not in their original contexts, but they’ve been placed by archaeologists in a way that’s meant to replicate where statues have been found in comparable ancient courtyard gardens with statues that have been preserved in places like Pompeii. Whereas with the missing statues in the Colosseum — since we don’t have them at all — we can only talk about their original context by using representations or descriptions of the building from the time period. When we get to the Pantheon, which is where we’re heading next, you’ll also see a case where we don’t have statues remaining, but we have the //place// where the statues would have gone. So we have to think not so much about the statue itself or what it might have shown, but more about where and how it was displayed... and how a viewer in the building would have seen it or interacted with it.” ]
(click: "or interacted with it")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“We always have to be aware of the original context when we look at antiquities and archaeological sites,” Lisa tells you. “You should think about what the original context for your statue from the Getty might have been — things like scale and placement in a building, and how viewers might have interacted with it, walked around it, or seen it. For example, did people see it from below, like with the Colosseum statues, or was your statue able to be walked around, like in the House of the Vestals?”
“Good question,” you say. “I’m also wondering... whether certain types of statues are usually found in certain types of places.”
“Can you tell me more about what you mean?” Lisa asks. “Like, what kind of statues did the Welch reading say were in the Colosseum?”
[[“Gods and heroes.”|Apollo and Herc]]
[[“Roman historical figures, like Romulus and the She-Wolf.”|Romulus wolf]] ]
(set: $progress to 15)
(float-box: "x====", "Y====")+(css: "font-size: 60%;")[Progress
(print: '<progress value="' + (text: $progress) + '" max="18"></progress>')]“Right,” Lisa says. “The Colosseum statues were very likely Greek gods and heroes, like Apollo and Hercules. This makes sense because the Colosseum was used as an amphitheater, and you would want strong gods and powerful heroes to symbolize the strength the games and events happening here represented. Female deities would be, sadly, largely absent from a setting like that.”
“But they were featured in a place like the courtyard in the House of the Vestal Virgins,” you say.
(click: "Vestal Virgins")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“That’s true,” Lisa says. “All the statues were of high-ranking Vestals. At least that’s what we think based on the inscribed bases, which may or may not match the statues above it. Remember context! Maybe the statues were there to help remind the current Vestals of the ones who had come before them and the importance of their timeless, sacred duty: to guard the temple, the eternal flame of Vesta, and therefore protect the city of Rome.”
“Okay,” you say. “And what about the Pantheon? Was that a temple too?”
Lisa sighs. “It’s a mystery, which is fitting, I think, for the place. I’ll tell you more about it inside. It has a special aura.” The bus lurches to a halt and Lisa stands up. “Come on,” she says. “It’s easier to understand up close.” ]
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As you exit the Pantheon, Lisa says, “That probably gave you more questions about the Pantheon than answers.”
“Yeah,” you say. “I was really struck by the opening in the dome’s center.”
You speculate about its purpose...
[[Since there are no windows, the opening is there mainly as a light source.|light source]]
[[The Romans needed a hole to let out the smoke from the burnt offerings to the gods.|burnt]]
[[The hole opens up the temple to the heavens, so there must have been some astrological significance to it.|ascend]] ]
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(float-box: "x====", "Y====")+(css: "font-size: 60%;")[Progress
(print: '<progress value="' + (text: $progress) + '" max="18"></progress>')]
“There’s no evidence that the Colosseum held any statues of Romulus and the She-Wolf, although I suppose it’s impossible to be totally sure,” Lisa says. “From the evidence we have, the Colosseum statues were very likely of Greek gods and heroes, like Apollo and Hercules. This makes sense because the Colosseum was used as an amphitheater, and you would want strong gods and powerful heroes to symbolize the strength the games and events happening here represented. Female deities would be, sadly, largely absent from a setting like that.”
“But they were featured in a place like the courtyard in the House of the Vestal Virgins,” you say.
(click: "Vestal Virgins")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“That’s true,” Lisa says. “All the statues were of high-ranking Vestals. At least that’s what we think based on the inscribed bases, which may or may not match the statues above it. Remember context! Maybe the statues were there to help remind the current Vestals of the ones who had come before them and the importance of their timeless, sacred duty: to guard the temple, the eternal flame of Vesta, and therefore protect the city of Rome.”
“Okay,” you say. “And what about the Pantheon? Was that a temple too?”
Lisa sighs. “It’s a mystery, which is fitting, I think, for the place. I’ll tell you more about it inside. It has a special aura.” The bus lurches to a halt and Lisa stands up. “Come on,” she says. “It’s easier to understand up close.” ]
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As you exit the Pantheon, Lisa says, “That probably gave you more questions about the Pantheon than answers.”
“Yeah,” you say. “I was really struck by the opening in the dome’s center.”
You speculate about its purpose...
[[Since there are no windows, the opening is there mainly as a light source.|light source]]
[[The Romans needed a hole to let out the smoke from the burnt offerings to the gods.|burnt]]
[[The hole opens up the temple to the heavens, so there must have been some astrological significance to it.|ascend]] ]
(set: $progress to 16)
(float-box: "x====", "Y====")+(css: "font-size: 60%;")[Progress
(print: '<progress value="' + (text: $progress) + '" max="18"></progress>')]
“A taxi would have been great,” you say. “But I suppose it wasn’t a total loss. I got to see a few things, and I met a new friend.”
“Good to hear,” Lisa says. “But I still feel a bit guilty. I’ll buy us a few things for lunch to make up for it.”
“Lead on,” you say. “I’m starved!”
You make your way through the winding streets — bypassing Piazza Navona, from what you can tell — and soon you find yourself in the middle of the outdoor food market in Campo de’ Fiori.
<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/2bc3d0ce77d6c58ff812b03118467572/de6fb6253349e2cf-f9/s1280x1920/dfa3ebe53eb49c7e4ab82322bc0f913b0290709d.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
Lisa buys a delicious-looking cheese — a toma — as well as prosciutto di San Daniele and a couple cantaloupes. Then you follow her as she makes a beeline through the crowds into a bakery at the edge of the Campo.
(click: "edge of the Campo")+(t8n:'dissolve')[<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/e96e400eff020c43c4037126e257090b/4e73615462bc4893-3e/s640x960/90df6044542a2f81ef41c4525d01da0a31afc9aa.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
Inside, Lisa buys several //pezzi// of something called //pizza bianca//.
The woman behind the counter gives her the pizza and a ticket, which Lisa brings over to the cassa, or cashier, near the front door. She hands the cashier her ticket and pays, and then the two of you are out the door again.
Once outside, Lisa hands you a piece of pizza bianca.
<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/18b9432ef59894a11e5a404bc71bb72e/f0667aa4d8964a27-f8/s640x960/3fab14639b8cd65a68500152812ce5237be797eb.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
“What’s on it?” you ask. ]
(click: "you ask")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“Try it,” she says, stuffing her mouth with a bite of her own.
You take a bite. “Mmmm. Oh, that’s good. Let’s see... olive oil, a little sea salt maybe, and, uh...”
“You’ve got it,” Lisa says. “Mostly, anyway. All the best stuff here is simple, you know? Good ingredients, simple, and made with love.”
“I’ve heard that before,” you say.
“It’s true,” Lisa says as you round the corner into the courtyard where her house is. She pets Spike, who’s waiting at the front door, and then you both go inside. ]
(click: "both go inside")+(t8n:'dissolve')[You and Lisa set out all the food, along with a couple tall bottles of cold water marked //frizzante//, or sparkling, and start to eat.
“Here,” Lisa says, reaching for a book on the counter and tossing it to you. “Read the introduction through page 8. It’ll answer some of your questions. Nicely written, too. Very readable... I think you’ll like it.”
The book is called //The Pantheon: From Antiquity to the Present//, by Tod Mardar and Mark Wilson Jones. You open it up and start reading. ]
(click: "open it up and start reading")+(t8n:'dissolve')[//(To download the PDF, click on the “pop-out” button in the upper right corner of the document. That will open a new window, and from there you can read and/or download the PDF.) //
<iframe src="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1-oNL3LJZTM8wiBl_VxHorGPEIYGWQFa5/preview" style="width:100%;max-width:896px;height:672px"></iframe>
By the time you’ve finished, Lisa has put out some //ciambelline al vino rosso// on the wooden table. ]
(click: "on the wooden table")+(t8n:'dissolve')[<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/4ea5be41b33fabbdc54d20cd2689e374/2f5eba1b51a1fa45-d1/s1280x1920/2c465e2bf59a3266613ca4b2052610f578ce1935.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
You take a bite of cookie, and Lisa says, “The Pantheon is an architectural wonder — its architecture has influenced many important modern buildings.”
“Like the Capitol Building in Washington, DC?”
“That’s one of many, yes,” says Lisa.
“I was thinking about the statues, too,” you say. “Even though there aren’t any statues left now, ancient writers said they were there...”
“We’d call that literary evidence,” Lisa says. “Dio Cassius wrote that there were statues of the deified Julius Caesar — ‘deified’ meaning he was made a god after his death — along with the Olympian gods, including Venus and Mars. He also wrote that there were statues of Augustus and Agrippa in the niches in the front of the Pantheon, almost like they were hosts welcoming visitors inside. But inside, it would have been only the gods, with the light from the oculus bathing the interior with almost a heavenly light. At least that’s how it feels to me,” she says with a smile. ]
(click: "hosts welcoming visitors")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“I’m not sure where that leaves me with my Getty statue,” you say, “but I know more about context now, and some of the different ways people interacted with statues.”
“It’s a big subject,” says Lisa. “I have an idea about where you should go next.”
“Where?”
“I’ll let you know tomorrow. I’m going to head upstairs for an afternoon nap. You get to take naps when you’re older, like me.”
“Or when you’re a statue of a sleeping little boy,” you say.
Lisa smiles and goes up the creaking stairs, leaving you in the kitchen — all alone, but for the mosquitoes. You pop another piece of ciambella into your mouth and check your email. Mostly junk... except for a new message from your advisor, Prof. Moro, which reads: ]
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//Click here to expand the email text for more accessible reading//
(click: "Click here to expand the email text for more accessible reading")[
''Checking In, Tour Opportunity''
I just got a quick update from Lisa that you went to the Forum, Colosseum, and Pantheon today. Wow! In typical Lisa fashion, she really took you around and showed you a lot. I hope you got some good ideas about possible contexts for your Getty statue. Now that you’ve looked at some sites where the statues might have been placed, you should go to museums next to see similar statues, which should give you a sense of the types and how they were used.
I am also writing because the director of the UC EAP (Education Abroad Program) based in Rome just reached out to me about getting help running a tour for their students. They read your post on the museum studies blog and thought that since you were in Rome, it would be wonderful if you could give undergrad students in the EAP program a tour. These students are new to Rome and have never taken an architecture or art history class before, so they won’t be familiar with the monuments. I thought it would be best if you could teach them about one of the buildings you just saw (the Colosseum OR Roman Forum OR Pantheon). It’ll be a relatively short tour — the students have a full schedule, and the plan is that you’ll meet them there and take them through the site, helping them to understand what you think is most important, or interesting, about it. I hope you’ll say yes — this will be another great thing to put on your resume, which will help you in your career. This reminds me: when I see you next, let’s talk more about the different career options that’ll be open to you once you finish school. I know we’ve talked about careers several times, but the new Museum Studies minor and the Architecture & Urban History minor in the department open up a variety of career options to graduates. Drives me CRAZY when people who know nothing about it say things like “What can you do with an Art History degree?” “Many wonderful things” is the answer, of course. But I digress...
The director will reach out to you later to schedule a time for the actual tour, which the students are really looking forward to!
A presto,
Prof. Moro]
To download the writing assignment for Chapter 3, click on the “pop-out” button in the upper right corner of the document. That will open a new window, and from there you can read and/or download the assignment.
<iframe src="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1afhfDBfiyydi65P40qn4wAf3OvZGndgj/preview" style="width:100%;max-width:896px;height:672px"></iframe>]
(set: $progress to 18)
(float-box: "x====", "Y====")+(css: "font-size: 60%;")[Progress
(print: '<progress value="' + (text: $progress) + '" max="18"></progress>')]“No problem,” you say. “I got to see a few things, and I met a new friend.”
“Good to hear,” Lisa says. “But I still feel a bit guilty. I’ll buy us a few things for lunch to make up for it.”
“Lead on,” you say. “I’m starved!”
You make your way through the winding streets — bypassing Piazza Navona, from what you can tell — and soon you find yourself in the middle of the outdoor food market in Campo de’ Fiori.
<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/2bc3d0ce77d6c58ff812b03118467572/de6fb6253349e2cf-f9/s1280x1920/dfa3ebe53eb49c7e4ab82322bc0f913b0290709d.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
Lisa buys a delicious-looking cheese — a toma — as well as prosciutto di San Daniele and a couple cantaloupes. Then you follow her as she makes a beeline through the crowds into a bakery at the edge of the Campo.
(click: "edge of the Campo")+(t8n:'dissolve')[<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/e96e400eff020c43c4037126e257090b/4e73615462bc4893-3e/s640x960/90df6044542a2f81ef41c4525d01da0a31afc9aa.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
Inside, Lisa buys several //pezzi// of something called //pizza bianca//.
The woman behind the counter gives her the pizza and a ticket, which Lisa brings over to the cassa, or cashier, near the front door. She hands the cashier her ticket and pays, and then the two of you are out the door again.
Once outside, Lisa hands you a piece of pizza bianca.
<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/18b9432ef59894a11e5a404bc71bb72e/f0667aa4d8964a27-f8/s640x960/3fab14639b8cd65a68500152812ce5237be797eb.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
“What’s on it?” you ask. ]
(click: "you ask")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“Try it,” she says, stuffing her mouth with a bite of her own.
You take a bite. “Mmmm. Oh, that’s good. Let’s see... olive oil, a little sea salt maybe, and, uh...”
“You’ve got it,” Lisa says. “Mostly, anyway. All the best stuff here is simple, you know? Good ingredients, simple, and made with love.”
“I’ve heard that before,” you say.
“It’s true,” Lisa says as you round the corner into the courtyard where her house is. She pets Spike, who’s waiting at the front door, and then you both go inside. ]
(click: "both go inside")+(t8n:'dissolve')[You and Lisa set out all the food, along with a couple tall bottles of cold water marked //frizzante//, or sparkling, and start to eat.
“Here,” Lisa says, reaching for a book on the counter and tossing it to you. “Read the introduction through page 8. It’ll answer some of your questions. Nicely written, too. Very readable... I think you’ll like it.”
The book is called //The Pantheon: From Antiquity to the Present//, by Tod Mardar and Mark Wilson Jones. You open it up and start reading. ]
(click: "open it up and start reading")+(t8n:'dissolve')[//(To download the PDF, click on the “pop-out” button in the upper right corner of the document. That will open a new window, and from there you can read and/or download the PDF.) //
<iframe src="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1-oNL3LJZTM8wiBl_VxHorGPEIYGWQFa5/preview" style="width:100%;max-width:896px;height:672px"></iframe>
By the time you’ve finished, Lisa has put out some //ciambelline al vino rosso// on the wooden table. ]
(click: "on the wooden table")+(t8n:'dissolve')[<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/4ea5be41b33fabbdc54d20cd2689e374/2f5eba1b51a1fa45-d1/s1280x1920/2c465e2bf59a3266613ca4b2052610f578ce1935.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
You take a bite of cookie, and Lisa says, “The Pantheon is an architectural wonder — its architecture has influenced many important modern buildings.”
“Like the Capitol Building in Washington, DC?”
“That’s one of many, yes,” says Lisa.
“I was thinking about the statues, too,” you say. “Even though there aren’t any statues left now, ancient writers said they were there...”
“We’d call that literary evidence,” Lisa says. “Dio Cassius wrote that there were statues of the deified Julius Caesar — ‘deified’ meaning he was made a god after his death — along with the Olympian gods, including Venus and Mars. He also wrote that there were statues of Augustus and Agrippa in the niches in the front of the Pantheon, almost like they were hosts welcoming visitors inside. But inside, it would have been only the gods, with the light from the oculus bathing the interior with almost a heavenly light. At least that’s how it feels to me,” she says with a smile. ]
(click: "hosts welcoming visitors")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“I’m not sure where that leaves me with my Getty statue,” you say, “but I know more about context now, and some of the different ways people interacted with statues.”
“It’s a big subject,” says Lisa. “I have an idea about where you should go next.”
“Where?”
“I’ll let you know tomorrow. I’m going to head upstairs for an afternoon nap. You get to take naps when you’re older, like me.”
“Or when you’re a statue of a sleeping little boy,” you say.
Lisa smiles and goes up the creaking stairs, leaving you in the kitchen — all alone, but for the mosquitoes. You pop another piece of ciambella into your mouth and check your email. Mostly junk... except for a new message from your advisor, Prof. Moro, which reads: ]
(click: "except for a new message from your advisor, Prof. Moro")+(t8n:'dissolve')[<iframe src="https://gauchocast.hosted.panopto.com/Panopto/Pages/Embed.aspx?id=a2fa6a37-7d84-4fc3-b242-afba014c9ec2&autoplay=true&offerviewer=false&showtitle=false&showbrand=false&captions=false&interactivity=none" height="0" width="0" style="border: 1px solid #464646;" allowfullscreen allow="autoplay"></iframe>(t8n: "dissolve")+(t8n-delay:1s)[<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/52f7ce8f71c3461cd6127e83c5f798b7/c83ae977910f63b7-eb/s1280x1920/d80c4973252d879ecb810e4a86330f4337ba8dc4.pnj" style="width:100%;max-width:1024px">]
//Click here to expand the email text for more accessible reading//
(click: "Click here to expand the email text for more accessible reading")[
''Checking In, Tour Opportunity''
I just got a quick update from Lisa that you went to the Forum, Colosseum, and Pantheon today. Wow! In typical Lisa fashion, she really took you around and showed you a lot. I hope you got some good ideas about possible contexts for your Getty statue. Now that you’ve looked at some sites where the statues might have been placed, you should go to museums next to see similar statues, which should give you a sense of the types and how they were used.
I am also writing because the director of the UC EAP (Education Abroad Program) based in Rome just reached out to me about getting help running a tour for their students. They read your post on the museum studies blog and thought that since you were in Rome, it would be wonderful if you could give undergrad students in the EAP program a tour. These students are new to Rome and have never taken an architecture or art history class before, so they won’t be familiar with the monuments. I thought it would be best if you could teach them about one of the buildings you just saw (the Colosseum OR Roman Forum OR Pantheon). It’ll be a relatively short tour — the students have a full schedule, and the plan is that you’ll meet them there and take them through the site, helping them to understand what you think is most important, or interesting, about it. I hope you’ll say yes — this will be another great thing to put on your resume, which will help you in your career. This reminds me: when I see you next, let’s talk more about the different career options that’ll be open to you once you finish school. I know we’ve talked about careers several times, but the new Museum Studies minor and the Architecture & Urban History minor in the department open up a variety of career options to graduates. Drives me CRAZY when people who know nothing about it say things like “What can you do with an Art History degree?” “Many wonderful things” is the answer, of course. But I digress...
The director will reach out to you later to schedule a time for the actual tour, which the students are really looking forward to!
A presto,
Prof. Moro]
To download the writing assignment for Chapter 3, click on the “pop-out” button in the upper right corner of the document. That will open a new window, and from there you can read and/or download the assignment.
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(print: '<progress value="' + (text: $progress) + '" max="18"></progress>')]The circular opening must have been mainly used as a light source, you think — after all, the light streaming in as a single beam is certainly dramatic.
But then again, you think, maybe there’s more than one reason the Romans incorporated it into the dome. You decide to do some research when you have time, and to return to the Pantheon yet again.
“It’s hard to believe they were able to build such a place so long ago, without the technology we have,” you say. “And it looks so new.”
“Yes, it’s very well preserved,” Lisa answers. “As I mentioned inside, it was turned into a church in the early 600s CE, and because of that, it was protected.”
“I’m so glad they protected it,” you say. “When I first saw it from the outside, I never really expected the inside to be so... so... what’s the word? Lofty?”
(click: "Lofty")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“Like most great art,” Lisa replies, “it’s almost meant to be //felt// more than it is to be understood, I think sometimes.”
“I’d like to do both,” you say.
Lisa nods. “You’re right, of course. I’ve got a few things you can look at back at the house, in order to help with the thinking side of things. We’re close, by the way.”
“I remember the walk. Next stop, Circus Agonalis, right?”
Lisa bursts out laughing. “Oh, I’m sorry about all that. Dragging you all over the city with your suitcase! I should have just offered to pay for a taxi instead.”
[[“A taxi would have been great.”|taxi]]
[[“That’s okay. I travel light, and it was a good way to see a few sights.”|okay]] ]
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(print: '<progress value="' + (text: $progress) + '" max="18"></progress>')]“I was thinking more about that hole in the ceiling, the oculus,” you say. “Is there any way it could have been there to let the smoke out after they started burning the meat from sacrifices? Or... could it have been incense that they burned?”
“The ancient Romans,” Lisa replies, “did burn both the meat from sacrificed animals and incense or other fragrant things, like pine cones, in rituals dedicated to the gods. But they would have done that at an altar, which was a sacred structure that was always outside a temple, not inside.”
“So you don’t think there’s any way the hole could have been for ritual smoke to reach the gods, then?”
(click: "ritual smoke")+(t8n:'dissolve')[Lisa shakes her head. “From the things we have learned about ritual sacrifice, it does not seem likely.”
“I don’t see an altar out here in the piazza — would there have been an altar out here that got destroyed?” you ask, looking around the piazza outside. “I only see the fountain, which is... pretty bizarre, isn’t it?”
<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/4f6ca4c5721323013200a51d6964914e/7680271cf9a247e3-d3/s400x600/707e9f5b1ff8ca08e51c68509751358c002b9a49.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
“It is strange, yes. Not ancient. Archaeologists recently dug below here after a sinkhole opened in the piazza, and they found pavement dating to the earliest building phase of the Pantheon. Here, let me pull up the picture from the newspaper.” Lisa pulls out her phone, showing it to you once she’s found the picture: ]
(click: "from the newspaper")+(t8n:'dissolve')[<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/5ee3a86b36fb1299489c52e1ae394ca6/86725f16505167ff-08/s1280x1920/4b62ffcd84136c0edf8d859ab99fda8b83a40b1f.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
“If you read the article,” Lisa continues, “you’ll see they didn’t find an altar, but they did find evidence of the paved forecourt in front of the Pantheon. The fountain itself is... I believe... 16th century.”
“So it’s basically new,” you say, smiling. “For Rome, anyway.”
“Quite new,” Lisa says with a wink. “But the obelisk is old — much, much older than the Pantheon. It was stolen by the ancient Romans, taken from Egypt to make a new temple to the goddess Isis, not far from here.” ]
(click: "goddess Isis")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“Isis, here?” you ask.
“She was very fashionable in Rome for a time,” Lisa says. “Partly because of Cleopatra — she was a big celebrity during her time, as well as a queen.”
“So, just like the columns in the portico — they were also taken from Egypt, right?”
“Yes,” Lisa answers. “The Romans liked to take things from other places to show their strength and their power.”
“This area has so much history, with so many different layers and phases,” you say. “When I first saw the Pantheon from the outside, I never really expected the inside to be so... so... what’s the word? Lofty?”]
(click: "Lofty")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“Like most great art,” Lisa replies, “it’s almost meant to be //felt// more than it is to be understood, I think sometimes.”
“I’d like to do both,” you say.
Lisa nods. “You’re right, of course. I’ve got a few things you can look at back at the house, in order to help with the thinking side of things. We’re close, by the way.”
“I remember the walk. Next stop, Circus Agonalis, right?”
Lisa bursts out laughing. “Oh, I’m sorry about all that. Dragging you all over the city with your suitcase! I should have just offered to pay for a taxi instead.”
[[“A taxi would have been great.”|taxi]]
[[“That’s okay. I travel light, and it was a good way to see a few sights.”|okay]] ]
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(print: '<progress value="' + (text: $progress) + '" max="18"></progress>')]You suspect that there might have been some astrological significance to the oculus in the center of the dome. You wonder whether the sun shines through the hole in such a particular way on certain days, at certain hours. The architect must have designed the temple specifically to have that effect, right?
But then again, you think, maybe there was more than one reason the Romans incorporated the hole into the dome. You decide to do some research when you have time, and to return.
“It’s hard to believe they were able to build such a place so long ago, without the technology we have,” you say. “And it looks so new.”
“Yes,” Lisa responds. “It’s extremely well built, which is one of the reasons it’s so well preserved. The other reason is that after it was turned into a church in the early 600s CE, it was protected.”
“It’s a complicated place with so many different layers and phases, but with a simplicity, too,” you say. “When I first saw it from the outside, I never really expected the inside to be so... so... what’s the word? Lofty?”
(click: "Lofty")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“Like most great art,” Lisa replies, “it’s almost meant to be //felt// more than it is to be understood, I think sometimes.”
“I’d like to do both,” you say.
Lisa nods. “You’re right, of course. I’ve got a few things you can look at back at the house, in order to help with the thinking side of things. We’re close, by the way.”
“I remember the walk. Next stop, Circus Agonalis, right?”
Lisa bursts out laughing. “Oh, I’m sorry about all that. Dragging you all over the city with your suitcase! I should have just offered to pay for a taxi instead.”
[[“A taxi would have been great.”|taxi]]
[[“That’s okay. I travel light, and it was a good way to see a few sights.”|okay]] ]
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(print: '<progress value="' + (text: $progress) + '" max="18"></progress>')]After reading the Coarelli excerpt, you take a quick cold shower, which isn’t quite as bad as you thought, partly because even though it’s still early in the morning, the day’s already getting (text-colour:red)[(text-style:"smear")[hot]].
You trudge down the stairs into the kitchen, where you find Lisa all ready to go. She pulls a straw hat down low over her white mop of hair, then grabs the keys, and before long, the two of you are outside and through the courtyard.
(click: "courtyard")+(t8n:'dissolve')[But instead of heading toward the Palazzo della Cancelleria, Lisa leads you up a street that opens out into a large piazza where workers are setting up stalls with crates of fruit, vegetables, cheeses, and various other wares.
“This is Campo de’ Fiori,” Lisa says. ]
(click: "Fiori")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“All this fruit and everything looks delicious,” you say.
“We can stop here for food on the way back if you want,” she says, walking so fast that you’re struggling to keep up. “We’ve got a bus to catch.”
She increases her pace, making a beeline for a green kiosk.
<img src="https://64.media.tumblr.com/7639a23624d836456d12c532b542de7d/d9b26b3ccd22afe9-3d/s1280x1920/690204e9eeb434b1ee6bb299e9f20f20c1907925.jpg" style="width:100%;max-width:896px">
She gets in line behind the man in blue, who’s buying cigarettes, and as soon as he’s finished, she hurriedly asks the woman in the kiosk for //quattro biglietti per l’autobus//.” ]
(click: "autobus")+(t8n:'dissolve')[She pays cash, takes the tickets, and takes off running, holding her enormous straw hat to her head as it flaps in the wind. You run after her, and the two of you barely manage to jump on a bus just before it leaves. You take a seat and watch as Lisa validates two tickets in a box on the bus that looks similar to the one you saw at the train station.
“You can’t just buy a ticket on the bus?” you ask as Lisa sits down next to you, breathing hard.
“No, you have to buy them before. I usually carry extras, but I ran out.”
“How much do I owe you for the ticket?” you ask.
“They cost one euro, 50 centesimi, but there’s no rush paying me back. I know where you live,” she says with a smile. ]
(click: "I know where you live")+(t8n:'dissolve')[“Thanks,” you say. “What happens if you forget to buy a ticket, or you don’t validate it?”
“You could get fined,” she says. “Police get on the buses every now and then to check to make sure everyone has a ticket that’s been validated.” She hands you your ticket and shows you the time stamp on it. “We have 100 minutes to take any bus or metro from the time of validation. It won’t take us nearly that long to get to the Roman Forum, though. Speaking of that: did the Coarelli reading help you understand what the Roman Forum was and how the area was used?
[[“It was the center of the city,” you say, “with bath complexes and circuses.”|baths and circuses]]
[[“It was the center of the city,” you say, “with temples, law courts, and markets.”|temples courts markets]] ]
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